contemporary
GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
Demography provides the necessary concepts and basic understanding of issues related to population and the consequences it entails for a highly integrated and interconnected world. Demography is defined as the quantitative or statistical study of populations. Hauser and Duncan in 1959 define demography as the study of the size, territorial distribution and composition of a population, changes therein, and components of such changes, which may be identified as natality, mortality, territorial movement (migration), and social mobility (change of social status). According to Anderson, this definition situates demography as the basis for all the social sciences. American demographer Frank Notestein first coined the term in the mid-twentieth century. Notestein's work would become the foundation of other scholar's work on the matter. According to Anderson, demography studies the following:
1. Population Size - the number of people in a country, a state, a city, a region, or the world at a given time.
2. Population Growth or Decline-changes in the number of people in a given geographic area over time.
3. Population Processes - fertility, mortality, and migration.
4. Factors Related to Population Processes-diseases and socioeconomic characteristics related to mortality, family formation, labor force participation, government policies related to fertility, the difference in income and opportunities in various areas, war and immigration policies, and economic conditions motivating migration.
5. Population Distribution-geographic distribution, such as among states or between rural and urban areas.
6. Population Structure-age and sex composition, the growing proportion of the population at advanced ages, the sex ratio at birth, and the increasing proportion of the population that is female with increasing age. 7. Population Characteristics-education, income, labor force participation, marital status, and race or an ethnic group membership-anything that has a value for each member of the population and does not have the same value for everyone.
Much of today's works on demography focus on estimates and projections of the size and characteristics of the population and the components of population change. According to Anderson, there are two ways of thinking about population change: Aggregate and Causal or Micro-behavioral Approach.
The Aggregate Approach looks at the components of population change. This is where the importance of population processes comes in. The components of population change, such as the roles of births, deaths, and migration in population size, are dealt with in this approach, it deals with macrosocial demographic processes. It studies how the levels of child-bearing, mortality, and population movement impact the growth or decline of a population. Anderson explains that this perspective alerted the world to the rapid population growth of developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s due to high birth rates and low death rates. This scientific knowledge would lead scientists and concerned agencies to deal with the situation by developing what we know today as contraceptives.
The Causal or Micro-behavioral Approach asks the following questions: What are the causal factors or behavioral mechanisms that lead to people's decisions? What behaviors do individuals adopt to implement their decisions? This approach investigates why people have children, their motivations, or the factors that led them to such a decision. Could it be cultural or social factors such as expectations from family or the ability to project manhood or womanhood? In the same manner, this approach acknowledges that behavior not only influences decisions leading to natality or birth rates, the number of annual births per one thousand people; it also affects mortality or death rates, the number of annual deaths per one thousand people. Anderson argues that although most of us would wish to live longer, decisions to cultivate habits that tend to shorten human life explain why the mortality rate is sometimes high. Vices such as cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and drug addiction have a telling impact on one's mortality.
THEORIES ON DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION GROWTH
View on population had already been developed in the early history of humanity. Confucius in 500 BC explained that when the population was too small, there were very few to till the land and taxes were not paid. To Confucius, a large population is helpful for a productive society. A society that would work well if the people were educated and trusted their rulers. He added that when the population was too large, poverty and hardships followed. He recommended that the government maintain a balance between the population and resources through government-enforced migration.
The ancient Greeks also had their views on demographics. Plato, in 400 BC, argued that the population should not grow or shrink rapidly, as the rapid population could lead to social disruption. He suggested that the population's quality is more important than its quantity and recommended that only fit men should have children. Another Greek philosopher, Aristotle, suggested that the population should be limited and have moderate growth. If the population is too large, it could disrupt democratic governance. To Aristotle, infanticide and abortion could be necessary to limit population growth.
Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that was popular during the 16th until the 18th century in Europe. Mercantilism was informed by an economic principle influenced by the actions of kingdoms, later powerful nation-states, competing to consolidate colonies to their regional power centers through warfare. European kingdoms and nation-states were also reliant on foreign trade and economic growth that favored European countries by exploiting its colonies' resources and monopolizing their economies. From this economic theory came the belief that countries needed to increase their population if they would have enough soldiers and colonists. Therefore, mercantilism considered a high population growth rate as vital.
1. Malthusian Approaches to Population Growth-refer to Thomas Malthus, an 18th-century minister, who maintained that although the population grows exponentially, food supply grows linearly. Malthus explains that poverty results from population growth outstripping the availability of resources, especially food. He believes that the source of high population growth was the lack of moral restraint due to man's natural tendency to reproduce. He argued that the only acceptable ways to limit fertility was refraining from premarital sex and postponing marriage until the couple can support their offspring, referring to these as preventive checks to population growth, otherwise known as moral restraint. Malthus added that if preventive checks were not observed, positive checks or increased mortality could be employed. Positive checks refer to phenomena or events that lead to premature deaths such as epidemics or pandemics, famine, war, natural calamities, etc. The Malthusian standpoint has influenced many societies in terms of their marriage and child-rearing practices until today.
2. Neo-Malthusianism - considered a belief system and movement in favor of population control programs to ensure resources for future generations. Contrary to Malthus
focus on poverty. Neo-Malthusians, who are informed by a heightened sense of environmentalism, are more concerned with widespread famine and environmental degradation, such as greenhouse accumulation due to production in favor of a growing population's needs results of uncontrolled population growth. Aside from influencing birth control and family planning programs, Malthus also inspired the development of eugenics, a science that deals with the improvement of hereditary qualities of a breed or a race, for example, through the control of human mating or human sexual activities.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY
Frank Notestein developed the Demographic Transition Theory, which discusses the history of demographic change globally. It is based on repeated observations of consistently similar population growth patterns in various countries as their economies developed. The demographic transition theory is a generalized description of the changing patterns of mortality, fertility, and growth rates as societies or groups of people move from one demographic stage to another across historical periods. The demographic transition model identifies four, sometimes five, stages in studying demographic trends. The stages of the demographic transition model (DTM) are the following:
1. Pre-Industrial Society - The death and birth rates are very high and are imbalanced. In this stage, when the levels of technology and medicine are still low, the population growth is kept in check through preventive and positive checks. Several factors explain the short life expectancy of people in this stage. The death rates are high due to a poor diet, poor sanitation and hygiene, and lack of appropriate medical care.
2. Early Transition-During this period, death rates are significantly reduced. Modern medicine and an improved food supply, specifically for children, and better education reduce the number of deaths caused by diseases and malnutrition. At the same time, the high birth rate is maintained due to lack of contraception, which causes rapid population growth. At this stage, people have a longer life expectancy.
decides to stop taking contraceptives to start a pregnancy. Lesthaege states that the different phases of SDT are characterized as follows:
3. Late Transition-At this stage, birth rates start to fall with advances in medicine and contraception methods and increased awareness through health education. While birth rate decline is attributed mainly to the use of contraceptives, changes in values and motivations surrounding childbirth are beginning to shift. Women begin to assume roles beyond the raising of children and maintenance of households. Women are educated and eventually assume economic and social roles.
4. Post-Transition - At this stage, the birth and death rates are both low. Wealthier societies tend to achieve this phenomenon resulting in a more stable society. Countries with prosperous economies, family planning, better healthcare systems, high levels of education, and higher social and economic enfranchisement for women tend to maintain low birth and death rates. However, when birth rates drop to a level that limits society's ability to supply future workers and leaders for society's economic and political survival, there are alarming economic and political consequences.
Other political scientists have argued that the assumptions of the first model of Demographic Transition did not really predict the present demographic status of the world. The authors of the Second Demographic Transition (SDT), Ron Lesthaege and Dirk van de Kaa argue that the projected equilibrium in death and birth rates under Stage 4 of the DTM did not take place and that fertility decline to a sub-fertility level or the level below the expected number of births that can sustain activities necessary for the survival of society. Van de Kaa argues that these shifts have been broadly linked to the following changes:
Structural Changes-modernization, the growth of the service economy and the welfare state, the expansion of higher education. Cultural Changes-secularization, the rise of individualistic values, the importance of self-expression, and self-fulfillment.
Technological Changes - the adoption of modern contraception, the advances in assisted reproduction, the explosion of new information technologies.
Lesthaege and Van de Kaa discussed that fertility decline was influenced by advances in healthcare and contraception and the weakening of traditional heterosexual marriage and family structure. Traditional marriage and family structures have given way to pluralistic forms characterized by the following:
1. increasing age at first marriage
2. increases in pre-marital cohabitation (live-in)
3. increases in instances of divorce
4. practice and acceptance of same-sex marriages
5. increase in the rate of childbirth outside marriage
All of these contribute to a greater decline in the rate of childbirth, Further, couples or individuals have moved from preventive contraception to self-fulfilling contraception. According to Lesthaege and Van de Kaa, during the first demographic transition, the issue was to adopt contraception to avoid pregnancy. However, in SDT, an individual decides
to stop taking contraceptives to start a pregnancy. Lesthaege states that the different phases of SDT are characterized as follows:
Phase I (1955-1970)-characterized by increasing divorce rates, a decline in fertility, older age of marriage, and the contraceptive revolution, meaning more effective contraceptives and change in use.
Phase II (1971-1985)-features a rise in premarital cohabitation (live-in) and non-marital childbirth (single parents or childbirth during live-in).
Phase III (1985-present)-shows a stagnating divorce rate, fewer remarriages, and a rise in fertility rate.
LESSON PROPER FOR WEEK 14
GLOBAL MIGRATION
Global migration can be thought of as a cause-and-effect connection, with causes as numerous as effects. People across international borders for a variety of reasons, including (though not limited to):
• Safety
Political conflict
Natural disaster
Education
Career
Family
Economic betterment
Furthermore, global movement is a protected human right that allows people to move from one place to another. Humans have alws migrated from one location to another. The freedom to migrate is so valuable that it has been designated as a protected human right.
However, not all motions are freely decided. Some people have been compelled to relocate, including entire families and villages. Human trafficking has pushed some people to relocate. Slavery in the modern era is known as human trafficking, Forced displacement affects over 1% of the world's population, or 65 million individuals. It's a worldwide disaster with enormous moral and ethical ramifications
Forced migration, in anly form, is a violation of human rights and a loss of human dignity. Injustices stemming from colonialism and racism, both historical and modern, continue to wreak havoc on the lives of immigrants and refugees. In their transit and destination countries, they face various forms of racial discrimination, xenophobia, and intolerance (Global Migration, n.d.).
One of the most serious global trends now is migration. Hundreds of millions of people around the world are moving for a variety of reasons, including war, economy, persecution, and a yearning for fresh opportunities. Many kids have been through migration, either personally or through family members or classmates. Many more are probably familiar with media tales on worldwide migration. They may have heard or read reports about Central American migrant families being separated at the US-Mexico border. They may be aware of the genocide perpetrated against the Rohingya, a Muslim minority group in Myanmar who have been persecuted by the Buddhist majority and forced to flee to congested refugee camps in Bangladesh.
According to the United Nations 2017 International Migration Report, there are currently 258 million migrants worldwide, with over 60% of them residing in Asia, Europe, and Northern America; however, only a fraction of the stories of this rapidly growing population are covered in today's news cycle. While shocking sights and tales may attract the attention of viewers and readers, another global incident or domestic crisis pulls the media's attention away from countless people (The Many Faces of Global Migration, n.d.).
The Push-Pull Factor
The Push-Pull factor can be used to describe some of the factors that cause worldwide migration. The factors in the destination country that entice a person or a group to leave their home are known as pull factors. These consideration entice people to move to a new location mostly because the opportunities presented in the new location were previously unavailable to them. A family moving from a country with little work possibilities to a new place with more opportunities for a successful career is an example of a pull factor. The new country's advantageous features motivate people to go there in search of a better life for their families.
The term "push factor" refers to circumstances that compel people to leave their homes. When a person feels distressed, they are more likely to move (safety, natural disaster, or political conflict). Although push factors do not force a person to leave their home, the situations that influence the push factors frequently have a detrimental impact on the Individual's quality of life if they choose to stay. Drought and famine, war conflicts, and/or excessive unemployment are among push factors that cause citizens of a country to migrate. Push factors, in particular, are frequently underestimated in terms of their popularity and frequency, according to a survey of employees conducted by Manpower inc. in 27 countries. In this study, 82 percent of respondents said they would relocate for a pay raise, 74 percent said they would relocate to advance their profession, and 47 percent said they would relocate to learn a new language. In a nutshell, individuals migrate for a variety of reasons.
On the other hand, people decide to migrate because of push factors and pull factors. People are induced to move out of their current location by a push factor, and people are induced to move into a new area by a pull factor. Because migrating is a huge move for most people, both push and pull influences are usually present. When people migrate, they see their current place of residence in such a bad light that they feel driven away, and they see another area in such a positive light that they feel drawn to it. Economic, cultural and environmental variables are the three basic types of push and pull factors. People move for a variety of causes that appear to be as many as the world's countries. According to the UN Population Division, international migrants have made up at least 2.5 percent of the world's population since 1960. Because these two principles are combined, this concept is not new: migrants have always been, are still, and will continue to be a part of our communities, which are becoming increasingly vibrant as new cultural influences are integrated. By accepting migrants into our communities, we assure that they will adapt to local culture more quickly and effectively, while also enhancing the community through the exchange of fresh ideas and cultural norms (Blackman, 2017).
Reasons for Migration
There are numerous motivations for human migration over the globe. These include physical, cultural, economic, and political reasons, as well as subsets or combinations of these reasons (for instance, migration due to political reasons may include cultural reasons as weil, such as religious persecution). Most migration in human history has been group migration, but present-day globalization has changed that.
Physical reasons for migration include sudden disasters. This category may include hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, and flooding. Some physical reasons may develop slowly over time. This second category may include famine, overpopulation, prolonged drought, and, increasingly, sea level rise. The crop failures that led to the irish potato famine occurred over a period of a few years and resulted in death for around a million people and migration for more than a million people from about 1845 to 1852. Today, with the slow encroachment of sea level rise, the tiny island nation of Tuvalu in the South Pacific, comprising nine low-lying coral atolls, is being pounded by flooding, coastal erosion, and increasing salinity. Some estimates project about 50 years before the islands are uninhabitable, and some citizens of Tuvalu have asked Australia or New Zealand for refuge (Reasons for the Movement of People in the World, Nation, or State, n.d.).
Political reasons are also some of the factors. Political problems are the following:
the administration is inefficient
the costs to the government are high
the program relies on aid from abroad (e.g. from the World Bank)
Economic factors relate to the labor standards of a country, its unemployment situation and the overall health of its economy. If economic conditions are unfavorable and look to be deteriorating, a larger proportion of people may likely emigrate to a country with a better economy. This frequently leads to people shifting from rural to urban regions while remaining inside their state's borders. As today's low- and middle-income countries continue to thrive and high-income countries see stower economic growth, migration from the former may decrease. Economic migrants are lured to international migration by the potential of higher income, better job possibilities, and, in many cases, a desire to flee their home country's domestic social and political circumstances. Most of these migrants are from middle-income nations, where the population is growing increasingly educated.
Salaries and wages, on the other hand, are likely to remain low in comparison to those in other, higher-income nations for those with similar educational backgrounds. Because of this discrepancy, some highly skilled individuals from underdeveloped countries may migrate to more developed ones. South-north movement is the term for this type of migration, which has historically been the most common type of economic migration. Individuals from developing countries went to more developed countries for work and sent remittances back to their home countries in south-north migration. However, in the last decade, south-to-south movement has become more widespread. South-south migration accounted for 36% of all international migration in 2013, while south-north migration accounted for 35%. Migration between developing nations is based on proximity, identity networks, income differentials, and seasonal migration, according to the Migration Policy Institute. As a result, 80 percent of south-south migration happens between nations that share contiguous borders and are likely to share cultural identities. Because the barriers to migration are lower in south-south migration that in south-north migration, the trend of south-south economic mobility is likely to continue. Economic migrants have more freedom in deciding where they want to go than humanitarian migrants. Many asylum seekers would escape to the first safe country that will take them in, whereas economic migrants will relocate to countries that either require their skills or provide better living conditions than their home country. As a result, pull factors within the destination country are more likely to affect economic migrants' decision-making." (Kharkiv National University of Economics, n.d.)
Technological advancement, both in communications and transport and the liberalization of labor markets, has the potential to the rate of circular migration. (Kharkiv National University of Economics, n.d.)
Individuals migrate between an origin and a destination on multiple occasions in this type of migration. Individuals are generally motivated by economic incentives to relocate to countries with greater job opportunities before returning to their home country (Jain, 2018). Cultural considerations can be particularly powerful motivators for people to leave a country. Slavery and political instability have historically been the two main cultural grounds for forced international migration. Refugees, according to the United Nations, are persons who have been forced to migrate from their homes and are unable to return due to fear of persecution based on their race, religion, nationality, social group membership, or political beliefs (Migration CHAPTER 3, n.d.)
WEEK 15
Many scholars are now expressing reservations about free-market and neoliberal economic theories. They perceive this ideology as promoting globalization, causing great inequality, and destroying the environment, rendering it unfit for human life. Companies extend their operations by catering to rising computer expectations. New factories are built, resulting in urbanization and the flattening of natural habitats. For example, firms engaging in the burning of forests in Indonesia, Mozambique, and Malaysia to convert to palm tree responding to increased demand for palm oil in major markets such as China, India, and other Asian countries. resources has an impact on the environment's health, global populations, and the faunal and floral species we of sustainable development cannot be overstated.
plantations are
It is critical to understand that how we treat the world's finite consume. It's also critical that we consider our purchasing habits. As a result, the importance
STABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
The
state of being steady or in equilibrium and so resistant to change is referred to as stability, it's the ability to bounce back from setbacks, However, the ability to sustain something is referred to as sustainability. A method of arranging civilization and human activity so that society, its members, and its economies can meet their needs and express full potential in the present while preserving biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and planning and acting to ensure that these ideals are preserved for future generations. In addition , sustainability is something (like action or a process) that can be maintained/supported to continue existing into the future.
their
Example:
In the sentence, "The new
agreement between two countries demonstrated their long-term friendship," a "sustainable" relationship is one that can be maintained at the same Otherwise, stable denotes a state of being unchanging or resistant to change. To be stable, something must be firm and immovable right now. A "stable building" will not be shaken or moved.
level of friendliness.
The Bruntiand Report prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development for the United Nations in 1987 defines the term sustainability as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs", Plociennik (2014) refers to this as the responsible use of resources. Today, many economic models are concerned with growth or the increase in the production of economic goods and services through time and the combination of resources that could induce production. Ecoriomic models do not consider the issues related to the depletion of natural resources to achieve this growth. Plociennik (2014) adds that economic theories also focus on technology as a form of escape from the sustainability dilemma, saying new techniques of production help to expand size of output without raising necessary input. Plociennik explains that this perspective neglects the role of sustainability in economic development since it merely focuses on new technologies, making better use of resources instead of saving resources.
Another factor that contributes not only to the neglect of sustainability but to the degradation of the environment is the capitalist system's use of open/waste spaces such as agricultural lands, forests, open seas, to sustain patterns of consumption - especially in the developed world-at the expense of poorer countries' environmental and economic decline. This mindset has led to western countries colonizing, polluting, enslaving and exploiting poorer developing countries as early as the eighteenth century until today.
can be said that the issue of sustainability was foreseen as early as the time of Malthus, but decision-makers and economic leaders have refused to listen to these warnings in exchange for progress that is not only unsustainable but also predatory to the most vulnerable sectors in the world.
It
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Development has become a catchphrase in the development community, with various definitions, meanings, and interpretations. To put it another way, sustainable development simply means "development that can be perpetuated indefinitely or for a specific length of time." Structurally, the concept can be seen as a phrase consisting of two words, "sustainable" and "development." Just as each of the two words that combine to form the concept of sustainable development, that is, "sustainable" and "development, has been defined variously from various perspectives, the concept of sustainable development has also been looked at from various angles, leading to a plethora of definitions of the with respect to sustainable development, the most often cited definition of the concept is the one proposed by the Brundtland Commission According to the research, sustainable development is defined as development that meets the requirements of the current generation without
concept. Although definitions abound
Report (Schaefer & Crane, 2005). jeopardizing future generations' ability definition. It provides a means to satisfy their own needs. 2017) suggest that sustainable development is a basic idea within global development policy and agenda, acknowledging the pervasiveness of WCED's for civilization to engage with the environment without jeopardizing the resource's long-term viability. Therefore, it is a development paradigm and a improving living standards without jeopardizing the earth's ecosystems or causing environmental challenges such as deforestation and water and air pollution that can result in problems such as climate change and It is argued that the relevance extinction of species. of sustainable development deepens with the dawn of every day because the population keeps increasing, but the natural resources available for the satisfaction of human needs and wants do not. It implies that sustainable development is an effort at guaranteeing a balance among economic growth, environmental integrity and incorporating economic, environmental, and social issues into decision-making processes. However, according to Diesendorf in 2000, is the goal or finish of a
Cerin (2006) and Abubakar (
concept that calls for
social well-being. This can be accomplished, according to Kolk in 2016, by while many people confuse sustainability and sustainable development, the two notions are distinct. Sustainability, process known as sustainable development. While "sustainability" refers to a condition, Gray (2010) asserts that "sustainable development refers to the process of obtaining that state. Additionally, sustainable development is a development with a sustainable rate in time yet preserving the natural resources and values for the coming generations.
The concept of sustainable development arose from a critique of development, which was primarily defined as "economic growth," with economic development being viewed as a series of progressive and necessary stages. However, some misgivings arose in the early 1960s, promopting increased emphasis on the significance of taking into consideration both social change and institutional requirements (in addition to the growth of production and income). At the United Nations and its financial institution, the role of education, "human capital," and regulations for basic sanitation became relevant concerns (the World Bank). However, environmental concerns have been made concerning two issues since the 1970s:
Because of combination of factors, including the inappropriateness of Western technologies and unfamiliarity with local populations' aims, priorities, and cultural references,
development in the South has resulted in severe environmental consequences (degradation of resources, biotypes, soil quality, and reducing biodiversity), all of which have led to
alarming levels of degradation.
Parallel to these worries about land, particularly the social and ecological consequences of development, another argument erupted in the shape of a worldwide warning: the continuation of human economic and demographic development was becoming untenable on a global scale. The Club of Rome's study was titled "Limits to Growth," and Georgescu-Roegen agreed in 1979 that tomorrow would bring reduction..
Sustainability is defined as development that meets current requirements without jeopardizing future generations' capability, ensuring a balance of economic growth, environmental protection, and social well-being.
MODEL OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Three Overlapping Circles Model
The overlapping-circles concept of sustainability recognizes how economic, environmental, and social variables all interact. We resize the circles to indicate that one aspect is more dominating than the other two, depending on our mentality. Some business leaders, for example, prefer to depict the economy as the largest circle because it is the most vital to their success and keeps their world spinning. The concept of sustainability appears to be positioned to continue to shape future development science debates. According to Porter and van der Linde (1995), the optimum options are those that meet societal demands while also being environmentally and economically viable, economically and socially equitable, and socially and environmentally tolerable. As a result, there are three
PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Courses
Privacy Policy
CV
As a visionary and forward-looking development paradigm, sustainable development emphasizes a positive transformation trajectory anchored essentially on social, economic and environmental factors. The three fundamental issues of sustainable development, according to Taylor (2016), are economic growth, environmental protection, and social equality. On this basis, it is possible to argue that the concept of sustainable development is founded on three conceptual pillars. "Economic sustainability," "environmental sustainability," and "social sustainability" are the three pillars. 1. Economic Sustainability = Economic sustainability refers to a production system that meets current consumption levels without jeopardizing future requirements.
Traditionally, economists who assumed that natural resource supply was limitless placed undue emphasis on the market's ability to efficiently distribute resources. They also belleved that the technological advancement would accompany economic growth to replenish natural resources destroyed in the production process. There are governing frameworks by which transactions are examined and judgments concerning economic operations are made, according to Dernbach in 1993. Production, distribution, and consumption are the three main activities carried out in an economy, but the accounting framework used to govern and evaluate the economy in these areas severely distorts values, which is bad news for society and the environment.
2. Social Sustainability Social sustainability encompasses equity, empowerment, accessibility, participation, cultural identity and institutional stability. Because development is about people, the term suggests that people matter. A system of social structure that alleviates poverty is referred to as social sustainability. In a broader sense, however, "social sustainability" refers to the relationship between socioeconomic conditions like poverty and environmental devastation, According to Kolk, social sustainability is not about ensuring that everyone's needs are met. Instead, it attempts to create the conditions necessary for everyone to be able to meet their own needs if they wish to. Anything that obstructs this organizations, or communities to develop toward social sustainability.
capacity is a barrier that must be overcome in order for individuals, 3. Environmental Sustainability Environmental sustainability refers to the natural environment's ability to stay productive and resilient in order to support human life. Environmental sustainability refers to the natural environment's ecosystem integrity and carrying capacity. It necessitates the long-term utilization of natural capital as a source of economic inputs and a waste sink. However, because technological innovation may not be able to maintain exponential expansion, the pursuit for uncontrolled growth is putting ever greater demands on the earth system and straining these boundaries. The consequences of climate change, for example, present a compelling case for environmental sustainability. Climate change is defined as major and long-term changes in the climate system resulting from natural climate variability or human activity
WEEK 16
According to experts, we now live in a time when the world produces enough food to support the world's population of nearly 7 billion people. However, between 2010 and 2012, around 870 million people around the world were still hungry. The traditional answer to this situation, according to Bartthwal-Datta, is to increase food production; however, increasing food production does not always contribute to food security. Many factors determine how a community, nation-state, or the entire world might achieve food security. When used in a global environment, the complexity of achieving food security grows, Ironically, the more severe and widespread hunger is, the more the concept of food security is valued by society and their governments. However, considering that food production resources are finite and strongly reliant on a lively and sustainable environment, the concern is how food production will cope with the rapid growth in population.
FOOD SECURITY
"Food security occurs when all people have physical and economic access to enough, safe, and nutritious food to suit their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life at all times". -World Food Summit, 1996
Food security refers to the ability of those who raise, catch, produce, process, transport, retail, and serve our food to earn a fair living income. Human security and food security are inextricably linked. Food security is considered a non-traditional security issue which is vital, like any other, to the survival and stability of any nation-state (FAO Food Security.百度
文库,2014)
Food Security has four dimensions: Economic and Physical Access to Food, Physical Availability of Food, Stability of the Other Three Dimensions Over Time, and Food Utilization.
1. Physical
Availability of Food refers to the physical existence of food. A nation-state must ensure local or domestic food production, commercially import and export food, food domestic food stocks. Availability of food at the household could be from own production or purchased from the market.
2. Economic and Physical Access to Food refers aid and to a sufficient supply of food at the national or international level; nevertheless, this does not guarantee food securtity at the home level. Concerns about limited food access have prompted policymakers to place a greater emphasis on incomes, expenditures, markets, and pricing in order to achieve
3. The process by which the body utilizes various nutrients is known as Food Utilization. Individuals with sufficient energy and nutritional intake are the consequence of adequate care and feeding practices, food preparation, dietary diversity, and food distribution throughout the home (Khazanah Research Institute, 2015). This, when combined with good biological utilization of the food consumed, establishes an individual's nutritional state (Essay on Food Utilization, n.d.J
4. Stability of Other Three Dimensions refers to having a regular or consistent access to food on a regular basis in order to maintain one's nutritional status. Weather extremes, political unrest, and economic variables such as unemployment and increased food prices can all have an impact on your food security.
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD SECURITY
The United States Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture claims that availability to high-quality, nutrient-dense food is essential to human survival. It goes on to say that secure food availability has a wide range of good consequences, including enhanced economic growth, poverty reduction, trade opportunities, global security and stability, and improved health and healthcare. Food security brings about economic growth because well-fed and properly nourished populations have advanced levels of human capital development, which serve as a source of workforce for a thriving economy. Further, high levels of malnutrition and illnesses due to poor food choices or lack thereof divert significant government funds for healthcare to other vital social services for societal development. Malnutrition creates a generation of less functional and illness-prone people, which may require sustained medical attention draining both private and public funds to do so. In the same vein, food security reduces poverty since it allows families to invest their funds for needs that lead to their development. Instead of spending their income on
hospitalization due to illnesses brought about by hunger or malnutrition, a family could spend it for the education of their children, giving them better chances in the future.
Food security is also crucial in creating trade opportunities. As countries and their local communities can produce enough food to ensure food security, excess supply can be traded for food supply that is not locally grown of exported to other countries for added income and augment the food sufficiency of that country.
Increased global security and stability is attained when there is food security. When a locality or country can provide for the needs, among them food and water, there is less likelihood that they will revolt against their rulers due to discontent, which could potentially and massive deprivation. It also prevents the possibility of massive migration due to famine or conflict arising from discontent, which could potentially strain the limited resources of their destination countries and lead to further conflicts with the latter's local population,
Food security is also responsible for the improved health and healthcare of people. Available and sufficient supply of nutritious food prevents malnutrition and diseases, thereby lessening the likelihood of developing diseases that can strain public and personal funds for hospitalization and medical costs. When a family cannot afford to buy healthy and nutritious food to provide for its members, chronic diseases are common.
Experts argue that food security is a difficult concept to measure. However, one can argue that the inability to attain all the dimensions of food security can lead to food insecurity. FAO defines food insecurity as when people lack secure access to sufficient safe and nutritious food for average growth and development and active and healthy life. According to the Utah State University Hunger Solutions Institute, hunger and food insecurity are two different concepts related to each other. Food insecurity refers to the inability to obtain acceptable food in socially acceptable manners due to a lack of or uncertainty in one's liability to obtain it (Lee, 2017), Hunger, on the other hand, refers to the restless or painful sensation that results from a lack of nourishment. Malnutrition can also develop over time as a result of repeated and involuntary lack of food access (Ohio Association of Second Harvest Foodbanks, n.d.).
EFFECTS OF FOOD INSECURITY
Food insecurity has developmental severe, economic, social and medical impacts on individuals, families, communities and countries. The unavailability of nutritious food to millions of people adversely affects individuals and groups of people in various ways, namely:
1. Malnutrition and Economic Instability According to the World Health Organization, it refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person's energy and nutrients Intake. In the Philippines, the cost of early childhood malnutrition is around P328 billion or 2.8% of the GDP. In addition, the adverse effects of malnutrition extended to a population's reduced human capital formation, excess mortality, additional health burden and added educations cost, which could push the cost of malnutrition in the Philippines to 4.4% of the GDP.
2. Social Upheavals When a country has a high prevalence of food insecurity, it also tends to experience social unrest and upheavals. Mass demonstrations of dissatisfaction
with the sitting government can cause economic and political instability, even deteriorate into a full-scale armed conflict with cross-border consequences.
3. Mass Migration and Displacement = Food insecurity or starvation resulting from long-standing conflict can lead to massive and forced migratory movements of people. This, in turn, can lead to potential conflict in their destination countries as the needs of refugees or migrants can strain the latter's resources and food supply. It can also pose risks to the sovereignty of destination states. Criminal and suspicicus elements such as terrorists and saboteurs can pose as refugees, infiltrate and compromise the host country's security.
10 CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
1. Rising population = There will be 219,000 people at the dinner table tonight who were not there last night, many of them with empty plates.
2. Rising incomes, changing diets = Today, with incomes rising fast in emerging economies, at least 3 billion people are moving up the food chain toward Westernized diets. They consume more grain-intensive livestock and poultry products. Today, the growth in world grain consumption is concentrated in China. It adds over 8 million people per year, but the big driver is the rising affluence of its nearly 1.4 billion people. As incomes go up, people tend to eat more meat. China's meat consumption per person is still only half that of the United States. That leaves a huge potential for future demand growth,
3. It is falling water tables In India, some 190 million people are being fed with grain produced by overpumping groundwater. For China, the number is 130 million. Aquifer
depletion now threatens harvests in the big three grain producers-China, India and the United States-that together produce half of the world's grain.
4. More foodless days = In Nigeria, 27% of families experience foodless days. In India, it is 24%; in Peru, 14%. The world is in transition from an era dominated by surpluses to one defined by scarcity. On some days, not eating is how the worlds' poorest are coping with the doubling of world grain prices since 2006. But even as we face new constraints on future production, the world population is growing by 80 million people each year.
5. Slowing irrigation Water supply is now the principal constraint on efforts to expand world food production. During the last half of the 20th century, the world's irrigated area expanded from 250 million acres in 1950 to roughly 700 million in 2000. This near tripling of world irrigation within 50 years was historically unique. Since then, the growth in irrigation has come to a near standstill, expanding only 10% between 2000 and 2010.
6. Increasing soil erosion Nearly a third of the world's cropland is losing topsoil faster than new soil is forming. This reduces the land's inherent fertility. Future food production
is also threatened by soil erosion. The thin layer of topsoil that covers the earth's land surface was formed over long stretches of geological time as new soil formation exceeded the natural erosion rate.
7. Climate change The generation of farmers now on the land is the first to face artificial climate change. Agriculture as it exists today developed over 11,000 years of relatively remarkable climate stability. It has evolved to maximize production within that climate system. Now, suddenly, the climate is changing
8. Melting water reserves At no time since agriculture began has the world faced such a predictably massive threat to food production as that posed by the melting mountain glaciers of Asia. Mountain glaciers are melting in the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps and elsewhere. But nowhere does meiting threaten world food security more than in the glaciers of the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau that feeds the major rivers of India and China.
. Flattening yields After several decades of rising grain yields, farmers in the more agriculturally advanced countries have recently hit a glass ceiling. The limits of photosynthesis itself impose that production ceiling. In Japan, the longtime leader in raising cropland productivity, the rise in the yield of rice that began in the 1880s essentially came to a halt in 1996. Having maximized productivity, farmers ran into the inherent limits of photosynthesis and could no longer increase the amount they could harvest from a given plot. In China, rice yields are now just 4% below Japan's. Unless China can raise its yields above those in Japan, which seems unlikely, it, too, is facing a plateauing of rice yields. Corn yields in the United States, which accounts for nearly 40% of the world corn harvest, are starting to level off. Yields in some other con-growing countries such as Argentina, France and Italy also appear to be stagnating.
10. Little time to prepare To state the obvious, we are in a situation both difficult and dangerous. The world today desperately needs leadership on the food security issue. Any further progress requires a total restructuring of the energy economy.
(Brown, 2013)
MODELS OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
The key aspects of the Food Security Conceptual Model include an understanding of:
1. Assets for a living (human, financial, physical, natural, and social capital)
2. Livelihood strategies (food or income sources, expenditures, coping mechanisms)
3. Various scales of study are used, including macro, meso, and intra-household dynamics
4. Integrated sectoral analysis
5. Resistance
6. Proximate to underlying causes
7. Risk management
8. Resilience
Other Food Security Models (found online)
WEEK 17
Citizenship, according to Britannica, is a relationship between an individual and a state in which the individual owes that state allegiance and is entitled to its protection. Citizenship entails a state of liberty with attendant responsibilities. Aliens and other non-citizens residing in a country are denied or only partially granted certain rights, obligations, and responsibilities. Citizenship is required for full political rights, including the right to vote and hold public office (Britannica, 2020). Allegiance, taxation, and military service are the most common responsibilities of citizenship (Citizenship and the Responsibilities of Citizens Essay, n.d.).
Citizenship is the most privileged kind of nationality, and it differs from other forms of nationality in that it is political. As a concept, it first arose in ancient Greece within the towns and city-states and was applied to male property owners. The Romans were the first to use citizenship to distinguish the residents of Rome from those of conquered territories – though, eventually, they would expand it to comprise all free inhabitants of the empire. Naturally, citizenship conferred necessary legal privileges within the realm. Citizenship disappeared from practice in the west during the middle ages and returned in part during the renaissance. However, as we know it today primarily, citizenship has its origins in the French and American revolutions of the 18th century.
Citizenship as a concept is considered to have three elements or dimensions. The first is the legal dimension which comprises rights; civil, political and social. The second one is citizens as political agents who actively participate in society's political structures. The third is citizenship, as membership in a political community acts as a source of an individual's identity. Two main models define any discussion about citizenship; the liberal model of citizenship and the republican.
There are two distinctly republican features of citizenship, says David Miller in 1999, willingness to defend the rights of others of the political community and to promote its public interests, and playing an active role in the formal and informal arenas of politics primarily as a way of expressing commitment to the community and identifying with it and seeking to influence it – making sure that what is done is ideally done in the name of all of its citizens. Though it would be easily set the two models up as rival conceptions, they can complement each other since liberal citizenship must sometimes be secured by exercising republican citizenship. In other words, liberal rights must sometimes be reserved by using one's
political rights.
The term “citizenship” is made up of three primary components or dimensions. The first is citizenship, which is described as a legal status characterized by civil, political, and social rights. The citizen is a legal person who is free to behave according to the law and has the right to seek protection from the law. It does not have to imply that the citizen participates in the creation of the law, nor does it necessitate that citizens’ rights be equal. Citizens, on the other hand, are viewed as political actors who actively participate in a society’s political system. Citizenship, according to the third definition, is membership in a political society that provides a separate source of identity (Leydet, 2017).
WHAT IS A GLOBAL CITIZEN?
A global citizen is someone who is aware of and comprehends the larger world, as well as their own role within it. They participate actively in their communities and collaborate with others to make the world a more equal, fair, and sustainable place (Who is the Global Citizen?, n.d.). Citizenship and citizen are terms that usually refer to a person’s national or geographical identification. A person who is recognized as a citizen of a certain country has special rights and responsibilities as defined by that country’s government. A global citizen is someone who:
Respects multiculturalism
Recognizes that global citizens’ primary characteristics are unity and collaboration
Is aware that his or her actions have an impact on the world
Acts empathetically and behaves appropriately
Has teamwork spirit
Helps other people and appreciates the cooperation
Takes responsibility for global concerns that affect his or her society
Knows what his or her responsibilities and rights are
Acts as a contributing member of society in order to make things better
Recognizes that the world as a whole is linked
Behaves ethically in all situations
- (Manseur, 2017)
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
It is a style of life that acknowledges our world as a growing network of interconnections and interdependencies (Carlin & Choi, n.d.). One in which our decisions and actions may have local, national, or international ramifications for people and communities (What is Global Citizenship, n.d.).
Global citizenship fosters individual respect as well as respect for others, regardless of where they live. It encourages people to think deeply and critically about what is equitable and just, as well as what would cause the least amount of harm to our environment. Exploring Global Citizenship themes can help students gain confidence in standing up for their opinions and improve their ability to evaluate the ethics and consequences of decisions (What is Global Citizen, n.d.). Global citizenship has gained popularity in government, civil society, and educational discourses in Europe and the Americas as a concept. Citizenship refers to a person’s status as a member of a specific group based on certain characteristics such as gender, age, political affiliation, and other characteristics. Global citizenship, on the other hand, entails thinking about the entire globe, improving it, and building a sustainable environment. Essentially, the Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) of the United Nations Secretary-General has established education as a method of fostering global citizenship. In order to help with this, UNESCO held two historic GCE sessions in 2013. Thus, global citizenship means that one takes responsibility for international matters related to his/her society. It concerns human rights and social justice (Manseur, 2017).
Global citizenship is defined by UNESCO as a sense of belonging to a larger society and common humanity. It highlights the interdependence and connectivity of the local, national, and global in political, economic, social, and cultural terms. Listening to others and sharing one’s own thoughts are both aided by global citizenship. Exposing learners to educational information that reinforces global citizenship ethics can help create a safe and equitable environment. This means that global citizenship can be taught to students as a way to promote peace and stability in society by teaching them what a global citizen is and how to be one, because the citizens who make up the community are the ones who should be committed to global citizenship ethics in order to form a globalized ethical society. Human rights preservation is the most important principle of global citizenship (Manseur, 2017).
Rights of a Global Citizen
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, first drafted in 1948 following World War II, includes the rights of global citizens. The fundamental character of the Universal Declaration, which is based on individual liberty, equality, and equity, has not changed. However, how human rights are applied change over time, with changes in the political, economic and social fabric of society. Also, new ownership that was not on the 1948 human rights agenda emerged, such as digital access rights, LGBT rights, and environmental rights. Some argue that the advent of new freedoms and the evolution of political systems necessitate an updated Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Thakkar, 2018).
The introduction of international and transnational human rights instruments has given credence to the idea of deterritorialization of rights regimes and the prospect of protecting a person’s fundamental rights regardless of her official membership status in a policy. Aside from differing judgments of the factual feasibility of such unbundling, some authors point out the dangers and argue that it is not desirable. Citizenship regimes that are stable “encourage internal redistribution and enable co-governance,” according to the World Bank (Leydet, 2017).
The discussion over voting rights is particularly complex, encompassing both external (increasing voting rights to non-resident citizens) and internal voting issues (expanding the franchise to resident non-citizens). The argument may protect migrants who qualify for permanent resident status and those who have entered illegally in the country and temporary migrants, in particular 'guest workers' who are often denied any access to citizenship (Leydet, 2017).
Responsibilities of a Global Citizen
As human beings, we all stand in a variety of relationships – whether to our parents, spouses, children, siblings, friends, colleagues, neighbors, fellow citizens or fellow religionists – all of which, however, may have come into being, and are regulated by norms and involve mutual claims and duties. Moral conduct generally consists of recognizing these norms and discharging our responsibilities towards these claims and obligations. A global citizen with moral, ethical, political, and economic obligations lives in an evolving society (Talukdar, n.d.). These responsibilities include:
Understanding one’s own and others’ viewpoints on global issues is a responsibility. Almost every global issue is accompanied by a variety of ethnic, social, political, and economic perspectives. Understanding these varied perspectives, promoting problem-solving consensus among different perspectives, and developing standard ground answers are all responsibilities of global citizens. Instead of taking sides with one point of view, a global citizen should look for methods to bring all sides together.
Respect for the notion of cultural diversity is a responsibility: Most global issues have many perspectives, which typically represent diverse cultural belief systems. Each of our major cultural belief systems adds value to our efforts to find solutions to the world’s challenges. It is critical to maintain respect for the world’s various cultural traditions in order to build a sustainable values-based world community; to make an effort to bring together the leaders of these other cultural traditions, who often have much in common with one another; and to assist leaders in applying the best elements of their cultures to the task of solving global issues and building a world community.
Making contacts and developing relationships with people from different countries and cultures is your responsibility. Global citizens must reach out to people from many countries and cultures and form ties with them. Otherwise, we would continue to live in isolated groups with limited perspectives on global concerns that are prone to violence. Building international partnerships is quite simple. Immigrants and people of various ethnic backgrounds today make up the majority of countries, cities, and towns.
Understanding how the world’s peoples and countries are interconnected and interdependent is a responsibility: Citizens of the world have a responsibility to comprehend the numerous ways in which their lives are intertwined with people and countries in other regions of the globe. They must understand how the global environment impacts them where they live, as well as how the environmental lifestyles they choose impact the environment in other areas of the world.
Responsibility to understand global issues: Global citizens are responsible for understanding the significant global issues that affect their lives. They must, for example, comprehend the effects of resource scarcity on civilizations, the challenges provided by the existing global distribution of wealth and power, the causes of conflict and the elements of peace-building, and the obstacles posed by a growing global population.
Responsibility to advocate for greater international cooperation with other nations: Global citizens need to play activist roles urging greater international collaboration between their government and others. When a global crisis occurs, global citizens must advise their governments on how to collaborate with other countries to handle the problem, as well as with established international organizations such as the United Nations, rather than taking unilateral action.
Advocacy for the implementation of international agreements, conventions, and treaties connected to global issues: Global citizens pledge to support their countries’ ratification and implementation of the global compacts, traditions, and treaties they have signed.
In each of the world community’s value domains, responsibility for advocating for more effective global equity and justice. There are an increasing number of cross-sector concerns that necessitate the application of international justice and equity norms, such as the global increase in military spending, unequal access to technology by different countries, and the lack of consistent national immigration laws. Citizens around the world must collaborate and advocate for global equality and justice answers to these problems.
- (Belano, 2021)
(Read pages 195-200 of your “The Contemporary World” book)