W5 Personal Relationships
Page 2: Lecture Aims
Learning Objectives
Explain affiliation and two relevant theories:
Privacy Regulation Theory
Social Affiliation Model
Describe ostracism and its implications in an online context.
Discuss examples of target-centred attractiveness.
Page 4: Affiliation
Definition
Affiliation: Tendency to form social bonds with others.
Reasons for Affiliation
To form groups and rely on others for support.
Page 5: Ostracism
Definition
Ostracism: Exclusion from society or a group.
Highlight on Professor Kip Williams as a leading expert on the topic.
Developed the Cyberball program to study ostracism.
Findings
Yes to the need to belong.
Rejection causes emotional pain, even if one feels indifferent to membership.
Cyberball studies reveal significant results about social belonging.
Page 6: Implications of Ostracism
Brain Response
Emotion and social exclusion activate brain regions:
Anterior cingulate cortex
Right ventral pre-frontal cortex
Study Findings
Research by Eisenberger et al. (2003) indicates distinct pathways for social and physical pain (Chen et al., 2008).
Page 7: Temporal Need-Threat Model
Overview
Williams (2009) established the Temporal Need-Threat model.
Two distinct phases of social exclusion:
Stage 1: Reflexive phase
social exclusion → social pain → fundamental needs are threatened
Stage 2: Reflective phase
Excluded people identify how they can re-establish their needs
Recovery
Excluded individuals identify strategies to meet their social needs once more.
Page 8: Cyber-Ostracism and Cyber-Rejection
Online Exclusion
Exclusion online: not receiving likes on posted content impairs
emotional wellbeing
Rejected participants felt greater threats to belonging and self-esteem.
Page 9: Psychological Determinants of Affiliation
Theories of Affiliation
Privacy Regulation Theory (Altman, 1975): Our privacy needs change over time, adjusting levels accordingly.
Social Affiliation Model (O’Connor & Rosenblood, 1996): Affiliation motivation varies with circumstances.
Page 10: Modern Perspective on Affiliation
Cognitive Resources
Dunbar posits limits on friendships due to cognitive load.
The capacity for social relationships depends on relational nature.
Page 11: Activity: Dunbar Number
Class Engagement
Robin Dunbar proposed limits on social contacts related to various categories.
Mentimeter activity will anonymously determine class opinions on social contact limits.
Page 13: Individual Differences in Affiliation
Variability
People differ in their need for affiliation due to:
Central nervous system differences: Introverts manage social arousal.
Cultural influences: Individualistic societies show greater desire for affiliation.
Page 14: Part 2 - Interpersonal Attraction
Introduction
Transitioning to interpersonal attraction as the second part of the lecture.
Page 15: Interpersonal Attraction Definitions
Key Concepts
Interpersonal attraction: Positive evaluations of others and a desire to engage with them.
Importance to friendships and romantic relationships.
Determinants
Factors influencing attraction will be discussed in detail.
Page 16: Determinants of Attraction - Target-Centred
Factors
Physical characteristics
Similarity to self
Reciprocity
Proximity
Page 17: Attractiveness of Physical Characteristics
Key Components
Considerations of physical attractiveness include:
Dimorphism: Gender differences in attractiveness norms.
Symmetry: Matcher faces are preferred.
Averageness: Faces that represent a population average are often favored.
Page 18: Physical Characteristics - Dimorphism
Research Findings
Feminine female faces are preferred in attractiveness ratings by both genders.
Mixed evidence for male facial preferences is noted.
Page 19: Physical Characteristics - Dimorphism (2)
Gender Preferences
Findings indicate variations based on sexual orientation, with distinct preferences observed:
Straight women favor masculine male traits.
Differences between female preferences based on orientation.
Gay men prefer masculine traits significantly.
Page 20: Physical Characteristics - Symmetry
Importance of Symmetry
Facial symmetry correlates with attractiveness; well-matched left and right sides are desired.
Evolutionary psychology connects symmetry to physical health metrics.
Page 21: Physical Characteristics - Averageness
Average Faces
People exhibit preferences for faces that are average within their populations.
Images can be generated computationally to represent averages.
Page 23: Preferring the Familiar
Exposure Effect
Preference extends beyond faces; applies to sounds, photos, etc.
Study by Verrier (2012) exploring familiarity impact on voting patterns in Eurovision:
Results demonstrate significant effects of prior exposure on voting scores.
Page 25: Part 3 - Interpersonal Attraction (2)
Continuation
Continuing the exploration of interpersonal attraction.
Page 26: Attractiveness Implications
Research Findings
Dion, Berscheid, and Walster (1972) discovered that attractive individuals are rated higher on almost all personality traits.
The Halo Effect
Attractive individuals perceived as having better life prospects.
Page 27: Attractiveness Implications (2)
Cross-Cultural Findings
Batres & Shiramizu (2022): Attractiveness leads to higher ratings on positive traits and lower ratings on negatives across diverse cultures.
Page 28: Evolutionary Basis of Attraction
Evolutionary Psychology
Focuses on reproduction and survival.
Attractiveness signals associated with health and pathogen avoidance.
Page 29: Attractiveness Stereotype
Critical Review
Feingold (1992) argues no correlation exists between attractiveness and intellectual or mental health traits.
Attractive people may be more socially skilled due to societal treatment.
Page 30: Similarity to the Self
Attraction Dynamics
Attraction often found among individuals with similar backgrounds and personalities.
Research by Jones et al. (2004) highlights attraction tied to arbitrary similarities.
Page 31: Reciprocity Principle
Interpersonal Dynamics
People generally like those who reciprocate their feelings; the reciprocity principle influences attraction.
Studies indicate that liking is influenced by mutual recognition and attraction.
Page 32: Proximity
Key Attraction Factor
Proximity influences attraction; physically close individuals tend to interact more.
Provides motivation to bond with others in regular social settings.
Page 33: Key Takeaways
Summary Points
Ostracism negatively impacts well-being, threatening fundamental needs.
Individuals manage relationships to avoid overload based on time and resources available.
Attraction is influenced by average and symmetrical faces as well as similarities, reciprocity, and physical proximity.
Attractive individuals are viewed as possessing more positive traits.
Page 34: Key Terms
Definitions
Affiliation
Ostracism
Cyber-ostracism
Cyber-rejection
Privacy Regulation Theory
Social Affiliation Model
Dunbar number
Dimorphism
Symmetry
Averageness
Attractiveness stereotype
Similarity
Reciprocity
Proximity