Eternal law: The Reason of God governing the whole universe.
Natural law: Man’s rational participation in eternal law.
Divine law: Derived from a transcendent source, God.
Human law: Man-made law, considered the lowest form of law.
Learning Outcomes
Understand and articulate the Natural Law theory of St. Thomas Aquinas.
Motivation Question
Do you follow rules without questioning authority?
Do you feel that some man-made laws disenfranchise the less fortunate, deviating from God-given law?
Background of St. Thomas Aquinas
Born in 1225 in Rocasseca, Italy.
Philosopher and theologian.
Combined theological principles of faith with philosophical principles of reason.
Influential thinker of medieval Scholasticism.
Works characterized by critiques of scriptures and Aristotle.
The Idea of Natural Law
Traced back to Cicero: "True law is right reason in agreement with nature."
St. Thomas's definition includes the nature of man as rational.
A man with virtues, good values, and goodwill makes natural law inherent to him.
Four Kinds of Laws Explained
Eternal Law:
The Reason of God governing the universe.
The universe is crafted by an intelligent mind.
Sustains life and exhibits excellent design.
The universe (cosmos) possesses unity due to the intervention of eternal law (Agapay, 1991).
Natural Law:
Man’s rational participation in Divine law.
Only humans have the faculty of Reason.
Example: It is wrong to kill another person because divine law does not promote killing.
Divine Law:
Derived from a transcendent source, God.
Theological explanation of a law from a supreme being.
Human Law:
Man-made law, the lowest form of law.
Promulgated by man to uphold the civil rights of citizens.
Nexus Between Natural Law and Eternal Law
Man's "participation" clarifies St. Thomas's philosophy of laws.
Natural law mirrors eternal law, palpable to man through reason.
Positive Law: Written law for rational beings to comprehend natural and eternal law.
Two Kinds of Positive Law
Civil Law:
Promulgated by man to maintain peace and order.
Protects individual civil rights (e.g., parking laws, property rights, right to life, freedom of speech).
Ecclesiastical Law (Canon Law):
Laws within Christian churches (Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican).
Governs the whole church, its parts, and individual actions.
Includes precepts of divine law, natural or positive, incorporated in canonical collections and codes.
Example: The Ten Commandments.
Aquinas on the Human Person
Embraced Boethius' definition: "An individual substance of a rational nature."
Agreed with Aristotle: Human person composed of soul and body.
Highlighted the supremacy of the soul as permanent and incorruptible.
Argued the soul can exist apart from the body after death.
Shared Aristotle's idea that humans share generic properties with animals.
Distinguishes humans through rationality, enabling intelligent and informed choices.
Categorization of the Human Soul
Cognitive (Rational Faculty/Intellect):
Leads to excellence or virtue.
Enables knowing, understanding, and apprehending the nature of the good.
Actions are voluntary, based on reasoned accounts of what is good.
A product of free judgment.
Appetitive (Irrational, Vegetative, or Will):
Cannot be dictated by reason.
Not in the realm of virtues.
Arises from desires to satisfy pleasures (food, sex, wine).
Actions are impulsive and go against reason.
Provides nutrition and nourishment for the body, enabling physical growth.
Aquinas on the Purpose of the Human Person
Central theme: All beings are created by God to return to Him.
Summary: "All things come from God and all things will return to God."
Genesis 1:31: "God saw all that he had made, and it was very good.”
God created everything out of infinite goodness and love.
Goodness is stamped in all creatures, especially man with Reason.
As rational beings, men are "naturally good."
Inclined to do good since reason instructs man to do so, and to avoid evil.
Paraphrasing Aristotle, Aquinas states the natural end or purpose of man is towards the ultimate or highest Good, that is, God.
Human goodness depends on performing human acts that are by our human nature
Union with God or salvation requires God’s grace.
God’s grace actualizes our potential to be in union with God.
Happiness, Moral, and Cardinal Virtues
Mirrors Aristotle’s ideas; both agree man is inherently good and rational, and both agree virtue leads to happiness.
Morality of happiness finds a nexus between one’s actions of doing good.
Four Cardinal Virtues (Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance) become habits to aid man in seeking happiness.
Interconnectedness of cardinal virtues enables reaching the highest good, union with God.
Contrasting Aristotle and St. Thomas on Happiness
Aristotle:
Highest good is happiness (eudaemonia).
Happiness is final, self-sufficient, desirable in itself (Aristotle, 1999).
Eudaemonia is the ultimate goal, equated to having a good life, attainable in this world.
St. Thomas:
Happiness is the perfect good, bringing all desires to rest.
Perfect happiness is the chief good.
Everything we do is for the sake of the good.
The connection of happiness with moral and cardinal virtues.
Ultimate happiness should be union with the supreme creator through the practice of cardinal virtues, subscribing to morality and resulting in eternal happiness.
Aristotle prepares human beings for St. Thomas’ eternal happiness.
Heaven is a state of mind rather than a place.
St. Therese of Lisieux: "Upon my death, I will let fall a shower of roses; I wish to spend my heaven in doing good upon the earth" (Therese, 1975).
Being a virtuous man means spending heaven here on earth.
Natural Law Ethics
First precept of natural law: “Do good and avoid evil”.
Humans are inherently good because they come from God and are endowed with reason.
Humans have a natural inclination towards goodness.
A person must not do any evil act since this is not by their natural essence.
We continue to become good persons by following our innate human nature.
Three Inclinations (Aquinas)
Shared with All Created Beings:
Preserve one’s being.
Example: Animals protecting offspring, plants having defense systems.
Preserving human life is by the precepts of natural law.
Unethical to take another's life or commit suicide.
Shared with Other Animals:
Propagation of species and care of offspring.
Animals engage in sexual intercourse when “in heat”.
Parents naturally take care of children, providing for their needs and education.
Unethical to abandon, deprive, or abuse children.
Artificial birth control is unethical.
Same-sex union is unacceptable because it will not result in procreation.
Unique to Human Beings (Rational Creatures):
Inclined to do good according to their essence as rational creatures.
Using intellect to know truth about themselves, others, society, and God.
Must dispel ignorance to move closer to the truth.
Naturally inclined to explore, discover, produce knowledge, and contribute to human understanding.
Activities lead to the truth and closer to God, who is the source of knowledge and wisdom.
Pursuing truth enables acting by true nature and leading toward ultimate end, which is God.