Chapter 3: The Spanish and Portuguese Empires (16th-17th Century)

The Spanish arrived with an ideology of conquest and supremacy.
They carried momentum from centuries of war, including the Reconquista.
St. James the Moor-Killer – Symbolic figure of Spanish Christian military dominance.

Spanish had advanced metal weapons, while most Mesoamerican weapons were made of stone.
Aztec warfare focused on capturing enemies alive, making them unprepared for the Spanish goal of total destruction.
The first experience of gunpowder (hand cannons) terrified the Aztecs.
The psychological impact of horses, steel weapons, and gunpowder played a huge role in Spanish dominance.

The Spanish exploited local divisions by forming alliances with groups like the Tlaxcalans.
Tlaxcalans surrounded Tenochtitlán, and many other indigenous groups joined the Spanish cause.
Cortez recruited soldiers from Spain and Cuba, increasing his army to 800 men.
Spanish strategy: divide indigenous groups and make them fight each other before conquering them.

Smallpox and other diseases devastated indigenous populations (up to 90% fatality).
Epidemics killed political and spiritual leaders, leaving societies vulnerable.
Spanish were immune to these diseases, which they interpreted as divine favor.

The Inca Empire stretched from Colombia to the Andes, where no other major empire thrived.
They developed vertical agriculture, growing quinoa, potatoes, and tomatoes at different altitudes.
Mastered stone-carving techniques (e.g., Machu Picchu).
Incas believed their rulers were divine and continued ruling even after death.
The empire constantly expanded, leading to internal conflicts upon an Inca ruler’s death.

Before the Spanish arrived, a civil war broke out between Huascar and Atahualpa.
Smallpox reached the empire before the Spanish did, killing the ruling Inca.
Atahualpa emerged victorious but faced instability.

Francisco Pizarro used Cortes’ strategies to conquer the Incas.
He allied with Atahualpa but later captured him at Cajamarca.
Pizarro used deception (e.g., handing Atahualpa a Bible, then attacking his unarmed nobles).
With Atahualpa under control, the Spanish took over the Incan military and power structure.

The Spanish discovered silver mines at Cerro de Potosí, which still operate today.
Silver doubled the world’s supply within a century, fueling economic globalization.
Spain demanded taxes in silver, and much of it flowed into China, the world's largest economy.
The Spanish Empire became extremely wealthy, but much of its silver passed through European trade networks.

Hegemony: A form of dominance that includes some level of consent from the conquered people.
The Spanish did not want to completely destroy indigenous societies—they wanted labor and tax revenue.
Epidemics worried Spanish rulers, as they depended on indigenous labor for wealth.

Viceroyalties governed the empire:
- New Spain (Mexico, Central America, parts of the U.S.)
- Peru (South America)
- Two more viceroyalties were added in the 18th century.
Each viceroyalty was ruled by a viceroy appointed by the Spanish king.

The Portuguese focused on trade rather than conquest.
Brazil was home to semi-sedentary indigenous groups with diverse languages and cultures.
Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not find large deposits of gold or silver.

Brazilwood tree (native to the Amazon) was the first major resource, used to make red dye.
The Fazenda system (plantation economy) developed, similar to Spanish haciendas.
Brazil became a hub for sugar production, which was highly profitable.
The Portuguese were early innovators in the Atlantic slave trade, sourcing enslaved people from Africa.

The exchange of crops, animals, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds.
Crops from the Americas transformed European diets:
- Tomatoes → Italy (Italian food had no tomatoes before 1500).
- Potatoes → Ireland (Became a staple).
- Corn, cassava (tapioca), and other calorie-rich crops fueled global population growth.
Diseases devastated indigenous populations, while Old World populations boomed.
Indigenous populations did not fully recover until the 1800s.

Population began to rebound in the 1600s, but full recovery took until the 1800s.
The Americas experienced an economic boom fueled by silver and agriculture.

Baroque architecture and art flourished, showcasing wealth and power.
Style was ornate, excessive, and mixed many influences.
Huge cathedrals were built, such as the Iglesia y Monasterio de San Francisco in Quito, Ecuador.
Baroque literature was also influential (linked to the poem assigned for class).

Charles I (1516-1556): First Habsburg ruler of Spain, also ruled the Holy Roman Empire.
Philip II (1556-1598): Married a Portuguese princess, expanding Spanish control.
Philip III (1598-1621): Strengthened ties with the Holy Roman Empire.
Philip IV (1621-1665): Oversaw the peak of Spanish power and the height of Baroque art.
By Philip IV’s reign, France began competing with Spain for dominance in Europe.

She was a writer, musician, and intellectual who had a vast collection of books.
Lived in a convent and was not allowed to leave, except to go to church.
Did not have a social life outside of being a nun.

A key figure of the Baroque and early modern era.
Considered central to Mexican cultural identity, along with figures like the Virgin of Guadalupe and Santa Rosa de Lima.
Her image appears on two different Mexican currency bills.
Her mixed-race heritage is reflected in depictions of her, showing a brownish skin tone to emphasize inclusivity and attract people.