core theme

CORE THEME CHEAT SHEET

Introduction

1. The stimulus shows (broad)

2. This raises the philosophical issue of (broad)

3. In the picture/extract there is (specific)

4. This begs the question (specific)

5. There are numerous approaches to this question, _____ would say ____, whereas ____ would think _____

6. In this essay I am going to argue for/against approaches.

HUMAN NATURE

1. Rationalism

• Definition: Rationalism is the idea that we gain knowledge through REASON and that humans are inherently RATIONAL beings.

• Innate Knowledge: Everything we learn is believed to be innate and is recalled by external cues in reality.

• Plato:
    - Objective Perception: Plato suggested that humans see the world objectively, possessing self-control.
    - Tripartite Soul: According to Plato, the human soul consists of three parts: Reason, Spirit, and Appetite.
      - Charioteer Analogy: Plato uses the analogy of a charioteer (Reason) controlling two horses: a dark horse (Appetite) and a white horse (Spirit).
      - Allegory of the Cave: Plato's second analogy illustrates that people live in ignorance; philosophy and reasoning guide them to discover truths beyond their perceived reality.

• Human Awareness: This framework explains why humans and animals inherently understand the need for basic survival (eating, drinking, sleeping).

• Argument Against Rationalism:
    - I disagree with this approach as it overlooks the significant influence of the external world and human experiences, emphasizing innate knowledge while ignoring empirical evidence (e.g., brain structure, neuron discovery) that necessitates objective testing.
    - We cannot definitively claim all knowledge is innate, as we continuously learn and encounter new experiences from the moment we are born.
    - Rationalism neglects to account for ___________.

2. Empiricism

• Definition: Empiricism posits that knowledge is derived from sensory experiences.

• Supporting Theories:
    - Behaviourism: Illustrated by Pavlov's dogs, which salivated at the sound of a metronome due to learned association.
    - Locke’s Tabula Rasa: John Locke argued that humans are born as a blank slate, knowing nothing.

• Examples Supporting Empiricism:
    - Freud’s Iceberg Theory: Suggests that our deepest desires and actions are shaped by childhood experiences.
    - Little Albert Experiment: Demonstrated that a child could develop fear (conditioned response) towards white rats through associative learning.

• Personal Agreement:
    - I agree with this approach as empirical therapy reveals how past experiences shape individual issues, supporting the claim that personal events influence psychological states.
    - The concept of qualia emphasizes subjective experiences that cannot be measured—these experiences are personal and learned through direct interaction with specific stimuli.

• In relation to the stimulus, empiricism ___________ because __________.

PERSONHOOD FOR ANIMALS

1. Anthropocentrism

• Definition: Personhood refers to the status of deserving moral community and recognition of one’s value.

• Perspective on Animal Value:
    - Anthropocentrism maintains that humans are the superior species; the value of animals and the environment depends on human-centric extrinsic worth.

• Aristotle's View:
    - Aristotle claimed that humans possess unique rationality, which grants them superior power over animals.

• Judeo-Christian Perspective:
    - Genesis 1:26 states that humans are created to manage and dominate the earth and its creatures, implying a hierarchy where animals are resources, not moral agents.

• Morality in Animals:
    - Some argue that animals lack morality due to instincts (e.g., predation under threat), contrasting with human moral frameworks.

• In this context, anthropocentrism would argue ___________ because __________.

• Rationality and Personhood: Aristotle believed rationality is the essence of personhood; beings lacking reason cannot be considered persons.

• Disagreement with the Approach:
    - I argue against this view, asserting it fails to account for animals capable of complex reasoning and emotional experiences.
    - The argument often relies on notions such as “that’s how it’s always been” or “it’s necessary for survival” without sufficient ethical endorsement (e.g., cosmetic testing or slavery).
    - The inadequacies of this perspective include a failure to explain why __________.

3. Libertarian Extension

• Criteria for Personhood:
    - Consciousness
    - Reasoning
    - Self-motivated activity
    - Capacity to communicate
    - Self-awareness

• Singer’s Proposal:
    - Peter Singer argues that personhood should reflect the ability to feel pleasure and pain, advocating for equal consideration of suffering across species.
    - Suggests a sliding scale of personhood based on cognitive capacity (e.g., newborns, vegetative states).

• Argument Against Speciesism:
    - Individuals with lesser capacities (e.g., embryos) may be afforded lesser moral status than fully conscious beings.
    - Bentham's Idea: A fully developed horse may exhibit more rational behaviour than an infant, challenging the hierarchy based on species.

• This approach would argue ___________ because __________.
    - I support this view for it confronts species bias when determining personhood.

• Some argue animals lack morality similarly to humans—this doesn't negate their right to moral consideration.

• This theory addresses my query more effectively because __________.

PERSONHOOD FOR ROBOTS

1. Alan Turing

• Turing Test: The criterion for robot personhood should be the ability to be mistaken for a human in conversation.

• Counterargument: Critics argue that robots merely execute programmed responses; however, it challenges the nature of human free will—are we entirely independent of programming?

• This approach would assert __________ because __________.

• I contest this perspective because robots lack the capacity to experience emotions independently; AI responses derive from inherent coding restrictions and cannot formulate ideas or opinions on their own.

• Major issue connecting this approach to my question includes __________.

2. John Searle

• Chinese Room Argument: Describes a scenario where a robot manipulates symbols based on predetermined codes to communicate without understanding.

• This approach would argue __________ because __________.

• I align with this argument as robots and AI merely replicate pre-existing knowledge without true comprehension.

• Their inability to form genuine understanding implies they lack essential characteristics of personhood.

• Supporting this reasoning, Aristotle's rationality forms the foundation of personhood; thus, a lack of understanding limits their moral agency.

• This perspective is advantageous for responding to my question because __________.

MIND AND BODY

1. Material Monism

• Definition: Material monism posits that the mind and body consist of a single physical substance.

• Example: Phineas Gage’s brain injury significantly altered his personality, suggesting direct influence of physical conditions on mental state.

• Neuroscientific Advances: Emerging research have begun pinpointing brain areas responsible for specific actions (e.g., memory, speech).

• This perspective would argue __________ because __________.

• I endorse this view as it emphasizes reliance on empirical evidence despite the common intuition of separation between mind and body.

• Supporting this argument, Helmholtz’s reaction time studies demonstrated variability in cognition (e.g., touching different body parts led to different reaction times).

• This approach effectively answers my question because __________.

2. Immaterial Monism

• Berkeley's View: Follows the assertion that to be is to be perceived, suggesting a mind-centric reality.

• Substance Dualism:
    - Mary’s Room Thought Experiment: Proposes whether exposure to color after comprehensive study of it elicits new knowledge upon first encounter.
    - Argues qualitative experiences (QUALIA) exist beyond physical phenomena alone.
    - Rubber Hand Experiment: Illustrates that subconscious identification can obscure actual physical interactions, demonstrating subjective realities.

• For the given stimulus, this theory would argue __________ because __________.

• Critique of substance dualism:
    - Encountered issues relate to the Problem of Interaction; Descartes posited the pineal gland's role but failed to adequately explain functionality.
    - Evolution of science (e.g., pineal glands linked with sleep) undermines simplistic dualism.

• The shortcomings of this framework regarding my question are __________.

3. Essentialism

• Definition: Essentialism holds that beings are born with inherent meaning or purpose.

• Aristotle's Belief: Rationality encapsulates the essence of human identity, suggesting individuals must strive towards virtuous living.

• Plato’s Forms: Represents the perfect essence of objects, which guide human understanding and moral purpose.

• Essentialists would argue __________ because __________.

• My disagreement lies in the oversimplification of human experience; it disregards how varied life experiences influence our identity development, rendering singular purpose unattainable.

• This argument fails to sufficiently address my question for reasons including __________.

4. Existentialism

• Basic Tenets: Existentialism posits that individuals create meaning; failing to do so results in living in ‘bad faith’.

• Notable Examples:
    - Myth of Sisyphus: Represents the absurd struggle for meaning.
    - Nietzsche’s Parable of the Madman: Illustrates the critique of lost traditional values.
    - De Beauvoir’s View: Discusses how women are socialized into specific roles, revealing societal constraints on freedom.
    - Sartre’s Bad Faith: Explores the conflict between choices and societal expectations which leads to psychological distress.

• Existentialism encourages active engagement in life to seek meaning, proving beneficial for mental health.

• I resonate with this approach as it confronts nihilism and rejects the idea of inherent meaninglessness (Nietzsche).

• I argue that while we can define our existence, we must avoid nihilism's pitfalls and appreciate the positive potential of existence.

• This framework effectively addresses my question because __________.

5. Absurdism and Nihilism

• Definitions:
    - Absurdism: Emphasizes life’s inherent meaninglessness, suggesting the search for meaning is futile.
    - Nihilism: Conveys the notion that traditional values decay, resulting in a lack of meaning in life (seen in Nietzsche's works).

FREEDOM

1. Hard Determinism

• Definition: Hard determinism claims that free will is an illusion; actions and decisions are inevitably predetermined through causal relationships.

• John Locke’s Locked Room Analogy: Describes a phenomenon where an individual may feel free while being confined without awareness of their constraints, thus illustrating perception of freedom.

• Example of Oedipus: Foretold destiny (killing father, marrying mother) similarly underscores predestination.

• I oppose this theory due to its neglect of agents with minds who can conceive ideas independent of preceding causes (agent causation).

• Principle of Alternate Possibilities: Suggests that multiple outcomes stemming from various choices invalidate the deterministic model.

• In this case, hard determinists would argue __________ because __________.

2. Libertarianism

• Definition: Libertarianism asserts that individuals possess free will, advocating for autonomy in decision-making.

• Agent Causation vs. Event Causation: Highlights the difference in freedom, asserting agents (humans) instigate actions, distinguishing them from deterministic event sequences.

• Libertarianism can lead to contractarianism, establishing moral frameworks based on perceived obligations.

• In response to the stimulus, libertarians would argue __________.

• I refute this concept due to the culturally relative claim, stating “we feel free”; the assertion lacks empirical credibility.

• Our intuitiveness could mislead, exemplified through instances of sensory deceptions (e.g., rubber hand illusion).

• This theory is insufficiently indicative since __________.

• I agree with this view as it encapsulates the probabilistic nature of our reality—modern physics emphasizes outcomes that can be predicted but not definitively determined.

• This theory is most apt in explaining the stimulus because __________.

3. Soft Determinism

• Definition: Hobbes’ analogy of the unimpeded river describes a framework where internal choices are considered free, while external restrictions limit freedom.

• Suggests that while deterministic paths present, individuals can make choices within those frameworks.

• The degree of control correlates positively with the level of responsibility shouldered.

• Soft determinists might argue __________ because __________.

• I concur with this view, paralleling our existence to a probabilistic framework—actions possess deterministic tendencies but retain individuality.

• This perspective aptly explains the stimulus due to its acknowledgement of both determinism and freedom in choice.

IDENTITY

1. Essential Properties vs. Accidental Properties

• Essential Properties: Attributes necessary for identifying an entity as the same.

• Accidental Properties: Traits that can alter without changing an item's fundamental identity.

2. Biological Criterion

• Definition: Proposes that physical bodies constitute the essence of identity.

• Ship of Theseus Paradox: Raises questions on identity amid component change (Plutarch’s and Hobbes’ takes on identity based on altered parts).

• Analogy of Brain Fission: Challenges straightforward biological determinism regarding identity.

• Legal and Social Contextual Shifts: Legal documents adjusting identity based on alterations in physical attributes (e.g., through surgery or other changes).

• This approach would argue __________ because __________.

• I contest this theory, demonstrating continuity of identity despite physical change—people retain identity post bodily transformation (e.g., post-weight change, haircuts, or surgery).

• This reasoning is inadequate for addressing my questions, as it disregards the inherent continuity across time and change.

3. Psychological Continuity Theory

• Definition: Emphasizes memory and psychological states as the foundation for identity.

• Supporting Examples:
    - Williams’ You’re Being Tortured Analogy: Explores implications of identity through mental continuity.
    - John Locke’s Prince and Cobbler Thought Experiment: Illustrates psychological continuity regardless of physical embodiment changes.
    - Phineas Gage compliance to identity shift through traumatic brain injury.

• I support the psychological continuity viewpoint since memories enable individuals to retain a semblance of continuous existence.

• Collective social memory (family relationships) reinforces identity coherence despite any personal experiential fragmentation.

• This argument remains superior as it incorporates broader psychological factors into identity determination.