Introduction to American Government and the Social Contract

Foundations of Enlightenment Philosophy and Individual Liberties

• The founding generation established limits on government intended to foster freedom and the flourishing of the individual.
• John Locke is a representative of the European Enlightenment, an era marked by an embrace of the individual as an autonomous thinking person rather than a subject of a distant ruler.
• Locke's framework emphasizes individual rights and liberty, including:
  • Freedom of speech.
  • Freedom of assembly.
  • Freedom of conscience.
  • Protections against unreasonable procedures, such as government entering a home without probable cause or reason to search possessions.
• Individuals possess inalienable rights that do not depend on a government granting them. These are often summarized as a riff on Locke's principles of life, liberty, and property.
• The Soviet contract (or social contract) describes a system where the people being governed have agency over the government.
• In this contract, "We the People" cede some rights to the government for the greater good, while the government has an obligation to fulfill its part of the bargain. If the government fails to uphold this bargain, a breakdown in the local economy or political order occurs.
• Under this principle, ultimate power is vested in ordinary people, and the government serves as a servant of the people.

Political Architecture: Democracy and the Republic

• While many describe the American system simply as a democracy, it is a more complex variant of the concept.
• Direct Democracy:
  • A system of rule where citizens vote directly on laws and policies rather than through representatives.
  • Ancient Athens serves as the historical foundation for this idea, where cast votes were direct manifestations of government action.
  • Modern examples of direct democracy in the United States include the initiative process, where groups of citizens can place questions on a ballot for a popular vote. In Colorado, this process led to the decriminalization of marijuana. In Missouri $20$ to $30$ years ago, it was used for remote gambling initiatives.
• Popular Referenda:
  • Found in states like Georgia, this is an instrument of direct democracy where constitutional amendments only become part of the state constitution if a sufficient proportion of voters approve them at the polls.
• Representative Democracy (The Republic):
  • Delegates at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia believed direct democracy would not work for the United States for two primary reasons:
    1. Trust Issues: The founding generation—disproportionately highly educated and wealthy—did not trust ordinary people (such as farmers or merchants) to have the same voice in every decision.
    2. Geographic Dispersion: The size of the thirteen colonies, and later a nation of over $300$ plus million people, makes putting every issue to a popular majority unworkable.
  • In a Republic, the people remain connected to the government and remain in ultimate control, but they express preferences by casting votes for individuals (in the House of Representatives, the U.S. Senate, or the Presidency) who represent their interests.

Defining Politics and Power Struggles

• Harold Glaswell defined politics with the memorable phrase: "who gets what, when, and how."
• Politics occurs within the halls of government and involves conflicts over:
  • Who will be in the government.
  • How the government is organized.
  • Which policies will emerge from the government.
• Politics is inherently messy and involves argumentation because it is essentially a struggle for power and influence. It is the power to control government and produce outcomes for specific policies deemed important by the population.

Pluralism and External Influence in Government

• While elections are a common way people influence government, they are often the most passive form of involvement.
• Pluralism is the theory that all interests are, and should be, free to compete for influence in the government. The core idea is that there is power in numbers.
• Citizens can sort themselves into interest groups that have professional infrastructures to push for specific policies:
  • Reproductive rights groups advocate for related policy changes.
  • The AARP (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons) is a powerful pluralist collection that provides information to older Americans regarding Social Security and Medicare.
  • The Cattle/Cowboys Association of America focuses on agricultural issues and farm subsidies rather than unrelated social policies.
• Industry groups and individuals help fund professional organizations to lobby members of Congress.

Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities

• In a democracy, individuals are citizens rather than subjects. A subject to a medieval English king had no ability to decide government actions or "fire" the government.
• Rights of Citizenship:
  • Voting in federal elections.
  • Freedom of speech, press, and gathering.
  • Protections under the Bill of Rights.
  • The right to bear arms (though no right is unlimited and is subject to court decisions).
• Responsibilities of Citizenship:
  • Jury duty: Citizens must show up when they receive a jury notification.
  • Voting: While some democracies fine citizens for not voting, the United States does not use this incentive.
  • Paying taxes: Fulfillment of this legal responsibility is part of the social contract.
  • Obeying laws: Those who do not fulfill their responsibilities are violating the law.

Political Knowledge and Efficacy

• Ideally, democracy functions best when citizens have political knowledge of the rules, processes, and principles of institutions.
• Disinformation, exacerbated by the digital age, social media, and AI, complicates the acquisition of valid political information.
• Statistical Gaps in Political Knowledge:
  • Only $56\%$ of surveyed Americans could identify the three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, and Judicial).
  • Only $35\%$ of the public knew that a U.S. Senator's term of office is $6$ years.
• Political Efficacy: The belief that one's participation in politics actually matters.
  • In $1960$, $75\%$ of Americans believed elected officials cared what they thought; only $25\%$ held a jaded view.
  • By $2019$, almost three out of every four Americans ($75\%$) agreed that elected officials did not care what ordinary people think.
• Declining efficacy leads to lower voter turnout and increased disengagement from politics.
• Rationality Argument: Some argue that even if individuals lack factual knowledge (e.g., naming Supreme Court members), the public behaves rationally as a whole. For instance, when unemployment rises or the economy fails (as in the Great Depression), the public traditionally removes those currently in power.

Demographic History and Immigration Policy

• In $1790$, the nation consisted of $13$ states on the Eastern Seaboard.
  • $81\%$ of the population traced roots to Europe (mostly Britain and Northern Europe).
  • Nearly $20\%$ were African individuals, almost all of whom were enslaved and lacked recognized legal rights.
• By $1900$, the population reached $76,000,000$. Until the late eighteen hundreds, the U.S. had virtually no restrictions on immigration.
• Historical Shifts in Policy:
  • Anxiety rose as immigration shifted from Northern/Western Europe toward Southern and Eastern Europe (e.g., Italy).
  • Outright exclusion of Chinese immigrants occurred in the late eighteen hundreds.
  • Immigration Act of $1924$: Instituted a national origin quota system with a hierarchy that favored Northern and Western Europeans.
  • Disimmigration Act of $1965$: Congress abolished the quota system, ending the favoritism of Western Europe and leading to new waves of immigration from previously disfavored parts of the world.