BSC2086 Final Exam Review Study Guide

Heart

  • Layers and Chambers of the Heart

    • Epicardium: Outer layer, houses blood vessels and nerves.
    • Myocardium: Middle layer, made of cardiac muscle, responsible for contraction.
    • Endocardium: Inner layer, smooth lining for heart chambers.
    • Chambers: 4 chambers- right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle.

  • Blood Pathway through Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations

    • Pulmonary Circulation: Blood travels from the right ventricle to the lungs via pulmonary arteries (oxygenation happens here), returns to left atrium via pulmonary veins.
    • Systemic Circulation: Blood moves from left ventricle to the body through aorta (delivering oxygen) and returns to right atrium via vena cavae.

  • Coronary Circulation: Major branches include the left coronary artery (supplies left atrium/ventricle) and the right coronary artery (supplies right atrium/ventricle).

  • Atrioventricular (A-V) vs Semilunar Valves

    • A-V Valves: Mitral and tricuspid valves, allow blood flow from atria to ventricles.
    • Semilunar Valves: Aortic and pulmonary valves, prevent backflow from arteries to ventricles.

  • Cardiac vs Skeletal Muscle Cells

    • Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary control, interconnected cells (intercalated discs).
    • Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary, multi-nucleated fibers.

  • Chemoreceptors and Baroreceptors

    • Chemoreceptors: Detect chemical changes (O2, CO2 levels); located in carotid arteries and aorta.
    • Baroreceptors: Sense changes in blood pressure; located in carotid sinus and aortic arch.

  • Neurotransmitters and Hormones Role:

    • Control heart rate, contractility, and vascular tone.

  • Autonomic Nervous System Effects

    • Sympathetic Stimulation: Increases heart rate and contractility.
    • Parasympathetic Stimulation: Decreases heart rate.

  • Heart Sounds: Sounds are produced by the closing of valves during the cardiac cycle, particularly the "lub" and "dub" sounds.

  • EKG Waveforms:

    • P Wave: Atrial depolarization.
    • QRS Complex: Ventricular depolarization.
    • T Wave: Ventricular repolarization.
    • Identify abnormalities like arrhythmias or hypertrophy.

  • Conducting System of the Heart:

    • Starts at SA node -> AV node -> Bundle of His -> Purkinje fibers.

  • Cardiac Calculations:

    • Stroke Volume (SV): Volume of blood pumped per beat.
    • Cardiac Output (CO): extCO=extSVimesextHeartRateext{CO} = ext{SV} imes ext{Heart Rate}
    • End Systolic Volume (ESV): Volume of blood left in the ventricle after contraction.
    • End Diastolic Volume (EDV): Volume of blood in the ventricles before contraction.

  • Preload, Contractility, Afterload:

    • Preload: Degree of stretch of heart muscle before contraction.
    • Contractility: Strength of heart muscle contraction.
    • Afterload: Resistance the heart must overcome to pump blood.

Blood Vessels

  • Structural and Functional Differences:

    • Arteries: Thick muscular walls, flexible, carry blood away from heart.
    • Veins: Thinner walls, larger lumen, carry blood back to heart; have valves to prevent backflow.
    • Capillaries: One cell thick, allow for exchange of nutrients and gases.

  • Factors Affecting Vascular Pressure, Resistance, and Flow:

    • Blood viscosity, vessel length, vessel diameter.

  • Capillary Dynamics:

    • Filtration: Movement of fluid out of capillaries due to hydrostatic pressure.
    • Reabsorption: Movement of fluid back into capillaries due to osmotic pressure.

Blood

  • Components of Blood:

    • Plasma (55%): Water, electrolytes, proteins, nutrients, hormones.
    • Formed Elements (45%): Red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets.

  • Unique Characteristics of Blood Cells:

    • RBCs: Contain hemoglobin, function in oxygen transport.
    • WBCs: Immune response functions (e.g., lymphocytes, granulocytes).
    • Platelets: Blood clotting functions.

  • Blood Cell Lifecycle:

    • Red blood cells originate in bone marrow, lifespan ~120 days.
    • White blood cells have varying lifespans and proliferation in lymphatic system.

  • Blood Types and Agglutination:

    • Detected by antigens on surface of RBCs.
    • Agglutination occurs when antibodies bind to corresponding antigens, leading to clumping.

Lymphatic and Immune Systems

  • Immune Response Characteristics:

    • Nonspecific: General response (e.g., skin, inflammation).
    • Specific: Targeted response (e.g., B and T cells).

  • Lymph Node Features:

    • Filters lymph, site for immune response activation.

  • Components and Roles in Immune Response:

    • B Cells: Produce antibodies.
    • Helper T Cells: Activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
    • Cytotoxic T Cells: Destroy infected or cancerous cells.

  • Functions of the Spleen:

    • Filters blood, produces lymphocytes; splenectomy increases susceptibility to infections.

Respiratory System

  • Conducting Zone vs Respiratory Zone:

    • Conducting Zone: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles.
    • Respiratory Zone: Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli.

  • Gas Exchange Factors:

    • Surface area, partial pressure gradients, thickness of the respiratory membrane.

  • Pleural Tissue: Serous membrane (pleura) that covers the lungs and lines pleural cavities, providing lubrication.

  • Pulmonary Ventilation Factors: Lung compliance, airway resistance, and elastic recoil.

  • Transport of Carbon Dioxide: Mainly as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the blood; catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.

  • Key Laws Affecting Respiratory Ventilation:

    • Dalton’s Law: Total pressure of a gas mixture = sum of partial pressures.
    • Boyle’s Law: Pressure inversely related to volume in gases, affecting lung expansion and contraction.

  • CO2 and pH Relationship: CO2 levels affect blood pH, with increased CO2 leading to acidosis.

  • Oxygen Transport: Bound to hemoglobin; factors affecting transport include pH, temperature, and 2,3-BPG.

Digestive System

  • Digestive Processes: Breakdown of food in stomach (e.g., hydrochloric acid, pepsin) and absorption in small intestine (villi/microvilli increase surface area for nutrient absorption).

  • Digestive Enzymes and Hormones:

    • Stomach: Pepsin, gastric lipase.
    • Small Intestine: Amylase, lipase, proteases; hormones like secretin and CCK regulate digestion.

Nutrition and Metabolism

  • Key Definitions:
    • Metabolism: All chemical reactions; divided into catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (building up).
    • Glucose, Glycogen: Glucose is a simple sugar; glycogen is its storage form. Processes include glycogenesis (creation of glycogen) and glycogenolysis (breakdown).

Urinary System

  • Kidney Functions: Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, regulation of blood pressure, electrolyte balance.

  • Nephron Components:

    • Glomerulus, renal tubule (proximal, loop of Henle, distal), collecting duct.

  • Glomerular Filtration: Pressure driven process filtering blood into Bowman's capsule; tubular processes modify filtrate.

  • Substances: Electrolytes, glucose, urea typically reabsorbed; waste products like creatinine secreted.

Fluid, Electrolytes, Acid-Base Balance

  • Major Electrolytes: Sodium (extracellular), potassium (intracellular), chloride. Imbalances can lead to health issues.

  • Acidosis and Alkalosis: Conditions defining pH imbalances: metabolic or respiratory origin.

Reproductive System

  • Male Anatomy: Epididymis (sperm maturation), seminiferous tubules (sperm production), vas deferens, ejaculatory duct.

  • Egg vs Sperm: Eggs are larger, fewer; sperm are smaller, more numerous.

    • Hormones: LH and FSH for testicular/ovarian function.

  • Uterus Function: Site for embryo implantation and fetal development.

Embryonic Development

  • Development Sequence: Begins with fertilization -> cleavage -> blastocyst formation -> implantation.

Endocrine System

  • Endocrine Glands Function: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream affecting target organs.

  • Pituitary Gland: Releases hormones like LH, FSH, growth hormone; controlled by hypothalamus.

  • Adrenal Hormones: Cortisol (stress), epinephrine (fight or flight), thyroid hormones (metabolism).

  • Blood Glucose Regulation: Insulin (lowers blood glucose), glucagon (raises blood glucose).

  • Hormone Comparison: Amino acid-based vs steroid hormones; differ in solubility and mechanism of action.