Sensation and Perception

Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception

I. Terms to Remember

  • Sensation: An elementary experience due to the stimulation of the sense organs.
  • Stimulus: Anything which initiates organic activity.
  • Sense Organs: Sensitive nerve endings located in different body parts.
  • Receptor Cells: Groups of cells found in the different senses.
  • Sensory Adaptation: The decrease of sensitivity of the senses as stimulation persists over time.
  • Threshold: The level of stimulus energy that must be exceeded before a response will occur.
  • Perception: Analyzing, interpreting, understanding, and giving meaning to the stimulus.

II. The Sensory Process

A. Eyes - Sense of Seeing (Light Waves/ Vision/Visual)
  1. Sun: The principal source of light.
  2. Sunlight: The light coming from the sun, perceived as colorless; reveals a spectrum when passed through a prism, appearing as a colored rainbow.
B. Visual Phenomena
  1. Inverted Retinal Image: The image is flipped horizontally and vertically by the optical system of the eye.
  2. Visual Acuity: The accuracy or correctness of vision, influenced by:
    • Size of the object.
    • Illumination: Lighting conditions affecting visibility.
    • Proximity: Distance of the object from the observer.
  3. Visual Accommodation: The ability of the lens of the eye to change curvature to focus on objects at varying distances.
C. Color Vision
  1. Addictive & Subtractive Color Mixing: Two principles defining how colors combine.
  2. Contrast Effects: Variation in perception based on adjacent colors or shades.
  3. After Images: Visual phenomena following exposure to a stimulus.
    • Positive After Image: Occurs if the color and shape of the original object do not change.
    • Negative After Image: Arises if the color and shape of the original object change.
Parts of the Eye
  1. Rods: Photoreceptor cells responsible for nighttime vision.
  2. Cones: Photoreceptor cells responsible for daytime vision and color detection.
  3. Aqueous Humor: Watery fluid in the eye that maintains intraocular pressure.
  4. Pupil: Adjusts its size (contracts or dilates) based on light intensity.
  5. Lens: Changes curvature to accommodate the distance of objects.
  6. Iris: Regulates the amount of light entering the eye, comparable to a camera's aperture.
Coats of the Eyeball
  1. Sclerotic Coat: The tough outer layer of the eye.
  2. Choroid: Middle layer, heavily pigmented, provides nourishment to the retina.
  3. Retina: Contains photoreceptors that convert light into electrical signals.
Visual Defects
  1. Myopia: Nearsightedness, difficulty seeing distant objects clearly.
  2. Hyperopia: Farsightedness, difficulty seeing close objects clearly.
  3. Astigmatism: Distortion due to uneven curvature of the cornea or lens.
  4. Strabismus: Crossed eyes, a condition where the eyes do not properly align.
  5. Presbyopia: Age-related difficulty in focusing on near objects.
Visual Abnormalities
  1. Scotoma: A blind spot in the visual field.
  2. Hemianopsia: Blindness on one side of the visual field due to lesions in the brain.
  3. Visual Paresthesia: An optic sensation perceived without the presence of an object.
  4. Night Blindness: Inability to see well at night, often due to Vitamin A deficiency.
Color Blindness
  1. Monochromat: Totally colorblind, perceives only black and white.
  2. Dicromat: Partially colorblind, can recognize some colors (e.g., red, green).
  3. Trichromat: Normal color vision, perceives colors accurately.
Theories of Color Vision
  1. Young-Helmholtz Theory: Proposes three primary colors: red, green, and blue (three-fiber theory).
  2. Von Kries Theory: Suggests color vision results from the actions of rods and cones.
  3. Hering Theory: Proposes colors operate in opposing pairs (anabolic & catabolic).
  4. Wundt's Theory: Differentiates between chromatic (strong) and achromatic (mild) colors.
  5. Ladd-Franklin Theory: States the primary colors are red, green, yellow, and blue.
Ears - Hearing (Sound Waves/Audition/Auditory)
  1. Sound: Produced by vibrating objects.
A. Auditory Phenomena
  1. Timbre: Tonal quality of sound.
  2. Pitch: The highness or lowness of sound.
  3. Resonance: The interaction of sound waves.
  4. Masking: Interference affecting sound uniformity.
  5. Noise: Sounds without notes or tune.
B. Auditory Defects
  1. Nerve Deafness: Loss of hearing due to infections or injuries to the auditory nerve.
  2. Conduction Deafness: Loss of hearing due to issues with the eardrum or ossicles.
  3. Perceptual Deafness: Related to difficulty interpreting sounds.
C. Theories of Hearing
  1. Place Theory: Hearing depends on the particular area of the cochlea that is stimulated.
  2. Traveling Wave Theory: Describes how sound waves travel through the medium.
  3. Frequency Theory: Hearing is affected by the frequency of sound waves.
  4. Valley Theory: Proposes that hearing is aided by the presence of bundles of fibers within the ear.
Nose - Smelling (Odors/Olfactory/Olfaction)
  1. Anosmia: Absence of smell.
  2. Sense of Smell: Considered the most basic and primal sense, capable of detecting odors from up to 1.6 km away in certain animals.
A. Phenomena of Olfaction
  1. Henning's Six Basic Odors:
    • Fragrant
    • Fruity
    • Spicy
    • Resinous (leaf/plant-based)
    • Putrid (foul odors)
    • Burned.
  2. Other Odor Classifications:
    • Floral
    • Smoky
    • Caprylic (goat-like), sweaty odors.
B. Theories of Olfaction
  1. Traditional Theory: Claims that any substance emitting gaseous particles can produce a smell.
  2. Radiation Theory: Argues that nostrils can radiate to detect any smelling object.
Tongue - Tastes (Flavors/Gustation/Gustatory)
  1. Gustatory Phenomena: The number of taste buds influences perception of taste.
  2. Four Basic Flavors:
    • Sweet
    • Sour
    • Salty
    • Bitter.
Skin - Touch (Pressure, Temperature, Tickle, Itch, Touch/Cutaneous or Tactile)
  1. Equilibratory Senses:
    • Kinesthetic Sense: Sense of direction and position.
    • Vestibular Sense: Sense of balance.

III. Perceptual Processes

A. Characteristics of Perception
  1. External Factors:
    • Limited sensory discrimination based on organism's condition and stimulus properties.
  2. Internal Factors:
    • Motives, movements, apparent movements, closure, and grouping.
    • Contours as boundaries between figures and grounds.
    • Follows definite and predictable patterns, influenced by intensity, size, and contrast.
B. Perception Constancy
  1. Location Constancy: Recognizing the position of objects despite changes in perspective.
  2. Color Constancy: Perception of consistent color despite varying lighting conditions.
  3. Shape Constancy: Recognizing an object's shape remains constant despite changes in viewpoint.
  4. Size Constancy: Objects’ perceived size remains constant despite changes in distance.
C. Errors of Perception
  1. Illusions: Experiences that do not correctly represent external objectives (normal experience).
  2. Hallucinations: False perceptions that are considered abnormal experiences.
    • Extra-Campine: Perception of stimuli outside the normal sensory range.
    • Leleologic: Hearing voices or strange sounds.
    • Lilliputian: Normal-sized objects perceived as microscopic.
    • Psychomotor: Belief that body parts are located elsewhere.
    • Hypnagogic: False perceptions leading to confusion with dreaming.
  3. Delusions: False beliefs and abnormal experiences.
    • Delusions of Grandeur: Belief in possessing extraordinary abilities.
    • Delusions of Persecution: Belief that others are conspiring against the individual.
    • Exalted paranoia, amorous, and jealousy delusions.
D. Extra-Sensory Perception (ESP)
  1. Telepathy: Mind-to-mind communication through thought transfer.
  2. Precognition: Awareness or foreknowledge of future events.
  3. Haptic Hallucination: False sensations involving physical touch or presence of insects.
  4. Clairvoyance: Gaining awareness of objects or events not perceivable by normal senses.
  5. Telekinesis/Psychokinesis: Ability to manipulate objects with the mind.

Chapter 6: Learning and Human Activities

I. What is Learning?
  • Learning: A permanent change in behavior resulting from practice, special training, and experience.
  • Learning can lead to behavioral changes for better or worse.
II. Kinds of Learning
A. Associative Learning
  • Learning through associations, which includes:
  1. Classical Conditioning: Developed by Ivan Pavlov, demonstrated through experiments with dogs.
    • Example: Dog associates a bell sound with food.
  2. Operant Conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner; involves reinforcement to produce desired behavior.
    • Example: Skinner box with rats to study behavior reinforcement strategies.
B. Cognitive Learning
  • Involves perception and knowledge acquisition.
  1. Perceptual Learning: Learning knowledge that the learner previously did not know.
    • Example: Understanding certain behaviors (e.g., zoophilia) through new experiences.
  2. Programmed Learning: An example of structured school learning.
  3. Sign Learning: Learning through natural or artificial signs.
III. Steps in Learning
  1. Motivation: Provides inspiration for learners.
  2. Goals: Establishes the purpose of learning.
  3. Readiness: Refers to preparedness to learn based on various factors, including experiential, psychological, and physiological aspects (e.g., headaches).
  4. Responses: Strategies used by learners during the learning process.
  5. Reinforcements: Enhancements in learning, can be positive or negative.
  6. Generalization: Application of learned material to different contexts.
  7. Obstacles: Barriers to effective learning.
IV. Theories of Learning
  1. Connectionism: Emphasizes stimulus-response bonds.
  2. Behaviorism: Focuses on how learners’ behaviors influence learning.
  3. Functionalism: Suggests that learners adjust to varying learning environments.
  4. Gestalt Learning: Proposes that learning occurs in meaningful configurations.
V. Laws of Learning

A. Law of Effect: Responses followed by satisfying effects are more likely to be learned and repeated.

  1. Law of Primacy: First learning experiences are remembered better than those afterward.
  2. Law of Belongingness: Associative learning is easier when related by meaning.
    B. Law of Readiness: Responses coupled with readiness enhance satisfaction.
  3. Law of Mindset: The learner's mental state influences response outcomes.
  4. Law of Apperception: Recognition of what is learned based on prior exposure.
    C. Law of Exercise: Practice enhances mastery.
  5. Law of Association: Learning occurs through linking related experiences.
  6. Law of Use and Disuse: Used skills strengthen learning; unused skills weaken it.
  7. Law of Frequency and Recency: Frequency of practice influences retention of learning.
  8. Law of Intensity: The strength of behavior is related to emotional significance.
  9. Law of Forgetting: Discusses systematic memory distortions or recall failures.
  10. Meaningfulness of Materials: Refers to the value of material in relation to prior knowledge.
  11. Whole vs. Distributed Practice: Whole practice refers to learning material as a whole; distributed practice involves studying parts over time.
  12. Some Degree of Overlearning: Learning beyond the necessary point for mastery.
  13. Use of Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids like acronyms to enhance recall.
  14. Active Participation in Learning Tasks: Engaging actively in learning activities improves results.
  15. The Number of Senses Involved: More senses engaged lead to improved learning outcomes.
VI. Techniques to Study
  • Motivation: Driving force that encourages study.
  • Organized Study: Structured approach to studying.
  • Study Method: Varies based on learner preferences, including visual, auditory, and kinesthetic techniques.
VII. Kinds of Remembering
  1. Redintegration: Remembering past events triggered by present experiences.
  2. Recall: Simple retrieval of past experiences.
  3. Recognition: Identifying familiar items or concepts.
  4. Relearning: Rapid learning due to previous exposure to material.
VIII. Learning Curve
  • Represents learning progress relative to time spent in practice.

IV. Thinking

  • Defined as behavior employing symbolic representation of events or objects.
A. Kinds of Thinking
  1. Associative Thinking: Connecting one thought to another; includes daydreaming and autistic forms.
    • Examples:
    • Eidetic Imagery: Photographic memory; precise visual recall.
    • Night Dreaming: Dreams occurring during sleep.
    • Manifest vs. Latent Dreams: Placeholder vs. subconscious content in dreams.
  2. Directed Thinking: Focused thoughts aimed at achievable goals.
    • Critical Thinking: Evaluative and reflective thought processes.
    • Reasoning: Logical analysis and assessment of situations.
    • Creative Thinking: Generating new ideas or concepts.
    • Brainstorming: Group process for problem-solving.
    • Problem Solving: Utilizing past experiences and alternatives to address issues.
B. Degrees of Awareness
  1. Delirium: Condition resulting from high fevers or substance effects.
  2. Ecstasy: A state often associated with religious experiences.
  3. Hypnosis: A state of focused consciousness resembling sleep.
  4. Somnambulism: Also known as sleepwalking; acting out while asleep.

Chapter 7: Individual Differences and Intelligence

I. Individual Differences
  • Defined as variations among individuals from average standards.
II. Characteristics of Individual Differences
  1. Variability and Normality: Differences arise from both biological constraints and environmental influences.
  2. Differential Growth Rates: Varied timing in physical and cognitive development.
    • Examples:
    • Early bloomers
    • Normal bloomers
    • Late bloomers
  3. Interrelations of Traits: Traits can influence one another.
  4. Heredity and Environmental Factors: Contributions made by genetics and surroundings to individual capabilities.
III. Factors Affecting Individual Differences
  1. Physiological Factors: Body structure and function impacts.
  2. Cultural Factors: Influence behavior and development through social norms.
  3. Biological and Social Interactions: The interplay of genetics and societal context.
IV. Measurements and Evaluations of Individual Differences
  1. Psychological Tests: Instruments designed to measure behavior samples.
  2. Characteristics of Psychological Traits:
    • Validity: The test measures what it purports to measure.
    • Standardization: Uniform administration ensures consistency.
    • Norms: Reference points for comparing individual performance.
    • Reliability: Consistency of results across multiple trials.
    • Objectivity: Consistent scoring regardless of test administrator.
V. Measures of Central Tendency
  1. Mean: Average score calculated as total scores divided by the number of cases.
    • Example:
    • Total of 8 + 6 + 6 + 3 + 2 = 25,
    • Mean = 25/5 = 5.
  2. Mode: Most frequently occurring score in a dataset.
  3. Median: Middle score derived by arranging scores and finding the center.
VI. Kinds of Tests
  • Aptitude Tests: Measure potential learning capacity.
  • Achievement Tests: Assess how much learners have learned (school tests).
  • Intelligence Tests: Evaluates cognitive capabilities (IQ tests).
  • Interest Tests: Gauge preferences for various activities (also known as inventories).
  • Personality Tests: Assess individual personality traits.
VII. Measures of Variability and Standard Deviation
  1. Range: The difference between highest and lowest scores.
  2. Mean Deviation: Average of how each score deviates from the mean.
    • Formula for Mean Deviation: md=∑dnmd = \frac{\sum d}{n}
VIII. Meaning of Intelligence
  1. Engel: Defined intelligence as the ability of an organism to adapt to its environment.
  2. Terman: Defined it as a general cognitive capacity to adjust thinking to new demands.
  3. Thurston: Describes intelligence as a blend of general ability and specific skills.
  4. Stagner: Defines intelligence in terms of learning abilities and adaptation to new situations.
  5. Gates: Views intelligence as a composite of organizational abilities for learning.
IX. Nature of Intelligence
  1. Includes various facets such as:
    • Word Fluency
    • Numerical Skill
    • Associative Memory
    • Perceptual Speed
    • Spatial Visualization
    • Mechanical Reasoning
    • Verbal Comprehension
X. Theories of Intelligence
  1. Spearman's Two-Factor Theory: Proposes intelligence consists of S-factor (specific) and g-factor (general intelligence).
  2. Thurston's Multifactor Theory: Identifies seven distinct factors contributing to intelligence:
    • Verbal Ability
    • Number Ability
    • Spatial Ability
    • Perceptual Ability
    • Memory
    • Reasoning
    • Word Fluency
XI. Measurement and Evaluation of Intelligence
  • IQ Formula: I.Q=MA(MentalAge)CA(ChronologicalAge)×100I.Q = \frac{MA (Mental Age)}{CA (Chronological Age)} \times 100
    • Example: A child with a mental age of 12 and a chronological age of 24: I.Q=1224×100=50I.Q = \frac{12}{24} \times 100 = 50
XII. Mental Disorders and Treatment
A. Mentally Retarded
  • Refers to individuals with a combination of medical, social, and educational challenges.
  • Classifications of mental retardation:
    1. Feeblemindedness: Includes moron (educable), imbecile (trainable), and idiot.
    2. Amentia: Lack of intelligence; defined as characterizing mental deficiency.
B. Mental Deficiency Levels According to IQ & Social Adjustments
  1. Moron (Educable): IQ 50-70, mental age approx. 12; needs supervision.
  2. Imbecile (Trainable): IQ 25-50, mental age approx. 7; often has physical limitations.
  3. Idiot (Custodial): IQ below 25-30, mental age of a 3-year-old; minimal support yields no significant results.
XIII. Clinical Types of Mental Retardation
  1. Primary/Endogenous: Primarily hereditary (approx. 40% of cases).
  2. Secondary/Acquired/Exogenous: Resulting from post-conception brain injury (about 60% of cases).
  3. Special Types: Includes Idiot-Savant, possessing exceptional skills despite cognitive deficits.
XIV. Causes of Mental Retardation
  1. Primary (Endogenous Factors):
    • Family history and genetic conditions.
    • Amaurotic Family Idiocy: Rare, linked to optic nerve issues.
    • Phenylketonuria (PKU): Genetic disorder affecting metabolism leading to cognitive deficits.
  2. Secondary (Prenatal Influences):
    • Examples: Mongolism (Down syndrome), Cretinism (thyroid issues), Microcephaly (underdeveloped brain), Macrocephaly (overdeveloped brain).
  3. Post-Natal Influences:
    • Severe infections, head trauma, and environmental post-birth factors.
XV. Special Types of Mental Disorders
  1. Idiot Savant: Traitors with unique exceptional skills.
  2. Pseudo-Feebleminded: Disorders confusing true intellectual abilities with perceived inefficiencies.
XVI. Treatment of Subnormal Intelligence
  1. Medical Therapy: Incorporates surgical and dietary interventions.
  2. Psychotherapy: Utilizes non-verbal methods for expression (drawing, painting, etc.).
  3. Training: Institutionalized education and special programs.
XVII. Identification of the Gifted
  • Methods:
    • Teachers' assessments based on classroom performance.
    • Peer judgments prospecting for superior abilities.
    • Standardized and group tests combining both metrics and grades.
    • Historical significance of Terman's studies from 1925 to 1947 focusing on gifted children.
XVIII. Education of Gifted Kids
  1. Acceleration: Allowing students to skip grades.
  2. Special Classes: Focused on individual interests and capabilities, conducted projects, or specialized studies.
  3. Enrichment Programs: Offer additional challenges outside the regular curriculum.
  4. Guidance: Continuous development and mentorship to prevent potential behavioral issues.
XIX. Psychological Differences Between Genders
  • Girls: Typically excel in memorization and vocabulary.
  • Boys: Tend to perform better in abstract reasoning and mathematics.
XX. Personality Studies
  • The term “personality” originates from Latin, meaning 'to sound through', contextualized as a pattern of individual behavior, thought, and character.
  • Personologists: Psychologists specializing in personality analysis.
XXI. Theories of Personality
A. Trait Theories
  1. Gordon Allport: Asserted a limited number of traits can be organized hierarchically.
  • Traits classified into common and personal dispositions.
    • Cardinal Dispositions: Dominate an individual's behavior across various situations.
    • Central Dispositions: Core traits defining an individual's personality (e.g., honesty).
    • Secondary Dispositions: More specific tendencies.
B. Raymond Cattell's Sixteen Traits
  • Differentiates between source traits (underlying factors) and surface traits (observable behaviors).
C. Hans Eysenck's Dimensions
  1. Extraversion vs. Introversion: Outgoing and sociable vs. reserved.
  2. Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: Anxiety and tension vs. serenity and relaxation.
  3. Psychoticism vs. Self-Control: Aggression vs. conformity and compliance.
D. McCrae and Costa's Big Five Factors
  1. Extraversion: Sociability and assertiveness.
  2. Neuroticism: Emotional instability.
  3. Agreeableness: Affectionate and cooperative nature.
  4. Conscientiousness: Dependability and efficiency.
  5. Openness: Creativity and willingness to embrace novelty.
E. Type Theories
  • Personality categories based on behavior categories.
  1. Humoral Theory: Originated from Galen, detailing behavior influenced by bodily fluids:
    • Sanguine: Cheerful and warm-hearted.
    • Phlegmatic: Calm and less energetic.
    • Melancholic: Depressed and gloomy.
    • Choleric: Temperamental and irritable.
F. Psychodynamic Theories
  1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Iceberg Model): Concentrates on early experiences' role in forming personality patterns through unconscious influences.
    • Conscious: Aware thoughts.
    • Preconscious: Information easily brought to awareness.
    • Unconscious: Inaccessible thoughts and desires.
  2. Structures of Personality:
    • Id: Immediate, pleasure-seeking instincts.
    • Ego: Rational self governing impulses of the Id, balancing demands.
    • Superego: Moral conscience guiding ethical behavior.
  3. Carl Jung's Adapted Theory: Emphasizes a dynamic libido for personal growth involving collective unconscious and archetypes.
  4. Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology: Suggests feelings of inferiority drive personality development through striving for superiority.
  5. Karen Horney's Sociocultural Theory: Highlights anxious feelings stemming from relationship insecurities.
    • Strategies:
    • Moving towards others (dependency).
    • Moving against others (aggression).
    • Moving away from others (isolation and self-reliance).
  6. Erik Erikson's Theory: Focuses on crises faced in social context shaping personality.
G. Humanistic Theories
  1. Carl Rogers: Promotes self-actualization and developing inherent capabilities within personal limits; distinguishes between the true self and ideal self.
  2. Abraham Maslow: Proposes a hierarchy of needs affecting motivation and personality development.
H. Learning Theories
  1. Albert Bandura: Personality emerges from observation and imitation of others.
  2. Julian Rotter: Introduced the concept of locus of control distinguishing between personal agency and environmental influence.