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Notes on the Evolution, Modern Health Care System, and Biomedical Engineering

Section 1: The Evolution of the Modern Health Care System

  • The discipline of Biomedical Engineering has emerged as an integrating medium for two proffessions. 1) Medicine 2) Engineering

  • Biomedical engineering has helped combat illness and diseases by providing tools health care professionals can use for research, diagnosis + treatment.

  • Primitive Healers (early human medical practices)

  • The Egyptians (historical medical traditions)

  • Primitive Healers considered diseases to be “Visitations” or whismical acts of gods or spirits.

  • The Egyptians emphasized the interrelationships between the supernatural + one’s health.

  • Imhotep = the god of healing

    —> architect of the 1st pyramid

  • Eyes of Hours = an Egyptian symbol of godly protection + Recovery

  • Rx = a mystic sign; today it’s the symbol for prescription drugs

  • The Greeks (foundations of medical theory and practice)

  • Aesculapius = Greek god of healing

    —> an earthly physician

  • The Aesculapia = a temple of healing

    —> may be considered the first hospitals.

  • At night the “healers” visited their patients, where they administered medical care

  • The Romans (advances in public health and medicine)

  • The Muslims (preservation and advancement of medical knowledge during the medieval period)

  • The Dark Ages (limited progress in Europe, with some continuity from earlier civilizations)

  • The Renaissance (revival of scientific inquiry and human anatomy; beginning of modern science)

  • England: Breathing a vein (historical references to venous and arterial techniques)

  • Germ Theory: The notion that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms

  • Florence Nightingale (pioneering nursing and sanitary reform)

  • Early American Hospitals (institutional development of health care in the U.S.)

Section 2: The Modern Health Care System

  • Began in the early 1900s; hospitals were the focal point of the American health care system; physicians and nurses were the main operational components of hospitals.

  • Advances in basic sciences supporting clinical practice; development of X-rays significantly impacted clinical medicine.

  • Sulfanilamides and penicillin reduced cross-infection among patients; hematology advancements led to the formation of blood banks.

  • Technology enabled more complex surgical procedures; electron microscopy provided cellular detail.

  • World War II contributed to comprehensive medical care, especially in rehabilitation and prosthetics; transplantation began to become common practice; electronics started to influence health care in the 1960s and 1970s.

  • Imaging and transplantation: Figures illustrate modern imaging facilities (e.g., fMRI) and organ transplantations performed today.

  • Section emphasizes that technological innovations have vastly altered surgeries and medical research.

  • Nanotechnology, tissue engineering, and artificial organs have become common practices in health and medical research.

Section 3: What Is Biomedical Engineering?

  • Definition: It involves applying the concepts, knowledge, and approaches of all engineering disciplines to solve specific health care-related problems.

  • Examples of applications (illustrative): - Development of species of plants and animals for food production

    • Invention of medical diagnostic tests for diseases

    • Production of synthetic vaccines from clone cells

    • Bioenvironmental engineering

  • Additional examples: - Study of protein–surface interactions

    • Modeling of growth kinetics of yeasts and hybridoma cells

    • Research in immobilized enzyme technology

    • Development of therapeutic proteins and monoclonal antibodies

  • Guiding statement: Biomedical engineers apply engineering principles to understand, modify, or control biological systems.

  • The world of biomedical engineering (Figure 1.9) encompasses a broad set of subfields:- Medical & Biological Analysis

    • Biosensors

    • Clinical Engineering

    • Medical & Bioinformatics

    • Rehabilitation

    • Biomechanics

    • Engineering Physiological Modeling

    • Prosthetic Devices & Artificial Organs

    • Medical Imaging

    • Biomaterials

    • Biotechnology

    • Tissue Engineering

    • Neural Engineering

    • Biomedical Instrumentation

    • Bionanotechnology

  • Section 3: Career Areas (summary of typical pursuits):- Physiologic modeling, simulation, and control for biological problems

    • Detection, measurement, and monitoring of physiologic signals (biosensors and instrumentation)

    • Diagnostic interpretation via signal-processing of bioelectric data

    • Therapeutic and rehabilitation procedures/devices (rehabilitation engineering)

    • Devices for replacement or augmentation of bodily functions (artificial organs)

    • Computer analysis of patient data and clinical decision making (medical informatics and AI)

    • Medical imaging (graphical display of anatomical detail or function)

    • Development of new biologic products (biotechnology and tissue engineering)

  • Figure 1.9: The world of biomedical engineering (visual mapping of subfields)

  • Clinical Engineering (Section 3):- Emerged from safety concerns in hospitals; began with hospital electrical safety; equipment inspections before/after use.

  • The Roles of Biomedical Engineers (Section 3):- Clinical Engineer

    • Biomedical Design Engineer

    • Research Scientist

  • Role definitions:- Clinical Engineer: Maintains traditional service relations with life scientists; considered the “problem solver.”

    • Biomedical Design Engineer: Examines a portion of the biomedical front with advanced technology; must persuade the medical community of usefulness; the “technological entrepreneur.”

    • Research Scientist: Applies engineering concepts to investigating biological processes; develops mathematical/physical models; the “engineer scientist.”

  • The ultimate goal of biomedical engineering: to serve society.

  • Regulation and hospital interactions: Figure 1.10 depicts the range of interactions a clinical engineer may engage in within a hospital setting.

Section 4: The Roles Played by Biomedical Engineers

  • A Day in the Life: - Design, develop, and test all aspects of medical/surgical instruments

    • Analyze failure, corrective and preventive actions in response to customer complaints

    • Report research findings through scientific publications, oral presentations, and formal documents

    • Demonstrate operation of equipment to medical personnel

    • Work with cross-functional teams to test prototypes

    • Median annual salary: 88{,}550

  • Three professional identities in practice:- Clinical Engineer: traditional service relationship with life scientists; the "problem solver".

    • Biomedical Design Engineer: uses advanced technology to address biomedical problems; the "technological entrepreneur".

    • Research Scientist: applies engineering to biological exploration; the "engineer scientist".

  • Core ethical/public service orientation: the ultimate role is to serve society.