Revolutions in 1848 outside France

This lecture focuses on the revolutions of 1848 outside France, particularly in Central Europe, including the German lands, the Austrian Empire (with a focus on Hungary), and the Italian Peninsula.

Laios Kossuth: Hungarian nationalist nobleman, lawyer, journalist, politician, and brief governor-president during the Hungarian War of Independence (1848-1849).
Nationalism: Played a dual role in the revolutions; it was both unifying and dividing.
- Unifying: Sparked movements for independence and greater political rights.
- Dividing: Disputes over who should be included in national polities; minority groups' rights came into question.

The institution of monarchy faced challenges from political liberals across Europe.
In smaller German states, rulers often quickly capitulated to liberal demands (e.g., granted constitutions, parliaments).
In larger monarchies like Austria and Prussia, the response was more cautious and sometimes authoritarian.
The French revolt in early 1848 stimulated revolutionary activities across Europe; news spread rapidly, igniting hopes for similar liberal successes.

Established post-Congress of Vienna, comprised of approximately 38 to 40 German states, led by Austria and Prussia.
The Confederation served mainly to provide mutual defense with no central government or executive authority, fostering a growing sense of nationalism.

Zollverein (Customs Union): Established in 1834, it promoted free trade among German states and imposed uniform tariffs against external countries.
- By the 1840s, nearly all German states except Austria had joined, benefiting about 34 million people.
Connection to economic advancement and increased political organization among the middle class, leading to political clubs and demands for more political participation.

Ascended to the throne in 1840 with initial liberal reforms, hopes for enlightened rule diminished amidst economic downturns and famine.
Revolt in Silesia: Frederick's forces suppressed a revolt among weavers due to economic hardships and British textile imports flooding the market.
Rejection of a constitutional monarchy; employed increasing authoritarian measures instead.
Revolutionary violence in Berlin led to significant clashes resulting in 250 casualties. An assembly was convened to draft a constitution.

Convened on March 31, 1848, following Metternich's flight to England, consisted mainly of moderate liberal professionals.
The assembly sought to unify Germany and draft a constitution, facing challenges due to the fragmented German states and lack of shared sovereignty.
Key debates centered on the inclusion of Austrian territories, defining the new German nation-state.
- Klein Deutsch (Small Germany): Excluded Austria; favored by the assembly, accepted in early 1849.
- Grosse Deutsch (Large Germany): Included Austria, opposed due to potential ethnic conflicts within the diverse populations.
The assembly extended a crown to Frederick Wilhelm IV, who rejected it as a "crown from the gutter", desiring legitimacy from higher authority.
Outcome: Delegates' disillusionment; a number fled to the United States, and revolutionary movements faced increased repression.

Disillusionment led to protests; peasants attacked tax offices, and there was a surge in political activism.
Workers formed militias, and newspapers spread revolutionary ideas despite censorship.

Composed of various states: Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Papal States, and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with Austrian control over Lombardy and Venetia.
Giuseppe Mazzini: Leader of the Young Italy movement, promoted republicanism and unification; faced failure in uprisings against Austrian rule.
King Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia: Nationalist who supported Italian efforts against Austria but had conflicting interests with Mazzini's republicanism.
Charles Albert faced challenges and pressures from both within and from Austria, leading to defeat.

Springtime of Peoples: Characterized by various independence movements (Hungarian under Kossuth, Pan-Slavism, Italian uprisings).
Kossuth's pressures led to the Hungarian diet preparing to write a constitution aiming for autonomy.
In Vienna, protests against the emperor escalated into barricades, resulting in Metternich’s flight.
Emperor Ferdinand I made concessions in response to pressures (e.g., male suffrage, creating a house of representatives).
March Laws (1849): Established in Hungary aiming for numerous liberal goals but increased control for the ethnic Hungarians at the expense of minorities.

Ferdinand's death transitioned power to Franz Joseph I, who sought foreign aid to restore order, leading to Russian intervention with 300,000 soldiers.
Russians helped suppress revolutionary movements in Austria, restoring the old order by mid-1849.

While initially a unifying force, nationalism resulted in intra-ethnic tensions, weakening solidarity among groups such as the Pan-Slavs and Italians.
By the late 1840s and into 1850, moderate liberals grew wary of mass political participation, limiting revolutionary pressures.

The 1848 revolutions displayed nationalism as both a rallying cry for independence but also a catalyst for division, indicating that the aspirations for unification in Germany and Italy were still unattainable at this stage. Future discussions will focus on the eventual unification processes that shaped both nations in subsequent decades.