Political Systems in Africa: From Independence to Multiparty Democracy

Expectations and Outcomes of Newly African Independent States

• The first wave of African States that secured independence from European colonizers inherited political institutions modeled directly after those of their colonial masters.
• Initial Expectations:
      - It was anticipated that these states would adopt the best institutions from Western democracies.
      - The goal was to establish models for their societies that were efficient, effective, and equitable.
• Reality of Implementation:
      - It quickly became evident that applying Western institutions and patterns of behavior within the African context was difficult.
      - Consequently, each African state created hybrids of political institutions.
• Resulting Institutional Hybrids:
      - Dominant political parties often transformed into single-party systems serving authoritarian civilian regimes.
      - In other instances, competitive party systems were replaced by authoritarian military regimes.

The Failure of Politics and Institutional Decay in the $1970s$ and $1980s$

• Economic Crisis:
      - A prolonged economic crisis experienced by many African countries led to a profound erosion of government revenue bases.
      - This resulted in low or negative per capita growth across many nations.
• Military Decline:
      - African state armies faced decline due to shrinking budgets and international pressures for downsizing and demobilization.
      - There was a significant lack of freely accessible military assistance.
• Institutional Crisis:
      - Developmental partners recognized that institutional decay had reached endemic proportions in Africa.
      - Failure occurred across all sectors of the polity, including the political system, public service, economic management, and the military.
      - International assistance during this period remained stagnant or declined.

Major Political Ideologies of the $1970s$

• African states utilized ideology as an instrument to manipulate political behavior, organize society, maintain territorial integrity, and manage political conflicts.
• African Socialism:
      - Aimed at moving away from foreign exploitation associated with the colonial period.
      - Sought to revive communal and egalitarian elements from the pre-colonial past.
• Three Predominant Ideological Forms:
      - Populist Socialism:
          - Focused on providing disparate groups with a common focus for unity, independence, and cooperation.
          - Characterized by a radical tone.
          - Example: Tanzania’s Ujamaa socialism, pioneered by Julius Nyerere.
      - African Capitalism:
          - Attempted development using "neo-colonialism as a development strategy."
          - Relied heavily on foreign aid and foreign private investments.
          - Examples: Kenya and Cote d’Ivoire.
      - Afro-Maxism States:
          - Insisted on the necessity of class struggle for historical change.
          - Emphasized international unity of all oppressed classes over national unity alone.
          - Examples: Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Angola.
• Shift to Pragmatism: Because none of these ideologies successfully saved the failed states, many governments eventually adopted pragmatic approaches.

Dominant Political Systems in the mid-$1980s$

• By the mid-$1980s$, approximately $60\,\%$ of African countries were under military rule.
• Civilian Regimes with Competitive Party Systems: Only six countries maintained competitive systems:
      - Senegal
      - Swaziland
      - Botswana
      - The Gambia
      - Mauritius
      - Zimbabwe
• General Characteristics of African Politics in this Period:
      - Compromised elections and democratic structures.
      - Frequent violations of human rights.
      - Official corruption and a systemic lack of governmental accountability.

Transition to Multiparty Democracy in the $1990s$

• Catalysts for Change: Pressure from domestic masses and foreign donors for economic and political liberalization led to the opening of political processes at the dawn of the $1990s$.
• The Norm of Multiparty Politics: Since the early $1990s$, multiparty politics and regular elections have become the standard in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Election Statistics ($1989$ to $2000$):
      - Following the $1989$ transition election in Namibia, and by the end of $2000$, approximately $87$ legislative elections involving at least two parties occurred across $42$ of the region’s $48$ states.
      - This reflects an average of over seven elections per year.
      - Over $65$ presidential elections involving more than one candidate were held during this time.
• Exceptions (Non-Multiparty States): Only seven states did not convene multiparty elections during this period: Eritrea, Rwanda, Sudan, Somalia, Swaziland, Uganda, and Zaire/DRC.

Routinisation and Institutionalisation of Elections

• A process of institutionalizing regular elections began as many countries held subsequent rounds of voting, usually on schedule at the end of constitutionally fixed terms:
      - $35$ countries convened second elections.
      - $10$ countries convened third elections.
      - Niger conducted its fourth election of the $1990s$ in November\,1999.

Distinctive Patterns of African Political Parties

• Role of Founding Elections:
      - Gaining control of the state apparatus during the founding election provided resources and motivation to strengthen party organization.
      - Parties failing to win the presidency were immediately disadvantaged in terms of resources, regardless of their representation in the legislature.
• Dominant Party Systems:
      - In eight states, the largest party held a simple majority of seats.
      - Average Seat Percentage for the Largest Party:
          - Founding elections ($41$ total): $63.1\,\%$ of seats.
          - Second elections ($35$ total): $69.6\,\%$ of seats.
          - Third elections: $64.3\,\%$ of seats.
• Low Ideological Salience:
      - Policy issues are rarely the focus of political competition.
      - Most parties adopt a vague populism, centering campaigns on opposition to corruption, general services for the population, and vague promises for the future.

Structural Obstacles and Influencing Factors

• Persistent Colonial-Era Obstacles: Problems including poverty, underdevelopment, economic dependence, ethnic and class conflict, and fragile economic/political institutions remained present into the $1990s$.
• Illiberal Democracies: Many new multiparty systems fall short of the liberal democratic ideal. While political freedoms/civil rights are formally recognized, they are often flouted, particularly between elections.
• Presidentialism:
      - Power is highly centralized around the president, who often sits above the law.
      - The president controls a large portion of state finances with minimal accountability and delegates very little authority on significant matters.
      - Regular ministerial structures are often relegated to a secondary, executant role.
• Pervasive Clientelism:
      - Characterized by the exchange of gifts, favors, services, and patronage within political systems.
      - Drivers of Clientelism:
          - Strength of clan, ethnicity, and sub-national identities.
          - Predilection for dyadic exchange in rural societies.
          - The necessity for "social insurance" mechanisms in the risky environments of low-income societies.
• Summary of the Era: While the early $1990s$ brought hope through the fall of dictators and pro-democracy successes, by the end of the decade, it became clear that the presence of multiple political parties does not, by itself, guarantee true democracy.