Art and Illusion among the Classic Maya — Page-by-Page Notes
Page 1
Title and author: Art and Illusion among the Classic Maya, Michael D. Coe.
Core aim: To challenge the view that Classic Maya painting was flat and lacked illusionism. Demonstrates that several illusionistic techniques, including chiaroscuro (light and shade), were practiced in Maya art during the Classic period.
Context of debate:
Tatiana Proskouriakoff argued that Bonampak murals and related Maya painting were best understood as line drawings; the primary aesthetic value lay in lines rather than depth/three-dimensional form.
She claimed the Maya had no interest in producing depth or solidity on two-dimensional surfaces; compared Maya painting unfavorably with Renaissance/Western traditions concerned with 3D form, chiaroscuro, and depth.
Coe’s stance (preview): Argues against Proskouriakoff’s view by presenting evidence of illusionistic techniques in Maya painting.
Comparative framework:
Ernst Gombrich’s Art and Illusion posits a Greek “revolution” (between ~550 and ~350 B.C.) introducing three-dimensional illusionism (chiaroscuro, foreshortening, cast shadows). He argues that such revolutions become traditional and extended in Greece, but not in other cultures.
Coe acknowledges Gombrich’s admiration but criticizes his cultural narrowness, noting a long-standing exception: the Upper Paleolithic cave-painting tradition of southwestern France and northern Spain.
Paleolithic exemplar and claim of multiple revolutions:
Chauvet Cave (≈35,000 years ago) features sophisticated line work, chiaroscuro shading, and overlap/occlusion that create solidity and realism for extinct animals, suggesting multiple illusionistic revolutions across time.
Coe suggests four illusionistic revolutions: Upper Paleolithic Western Europe, Classical Greece, Renaissance Italy, and the Maya lowlands.
Visual perception framework introduced:
Illusions in art are perceptual phenomena. Neuropsychologist Richard Gregory emphasizes that seeing is a brain-driven process where the brain forms hypotheses about objects from retinal signals.
Vilayanur Ramachandran outlines depth cues available in retinal images: shading, perspective, occlusion, and stereoscopic disparity. The brain exploits these cues to recover 3D shape.
Depth cues and shading in nature:
Shading is primitive due to a single light source (usually from above). Countershading (dark top, light bottom) is widespread in nature to avoid detection; shading must be combined with an enclosing outline to convey depth.
Key idea: The brain “sees with its brain,” not merely with the eyes; line drawings, shading, outlines, and occlusion all contribute to perceived depth.
Additional concepts connected to perception:
Some cues (like linear perspective, texture gradient) are Western innovations; other cultures rely on different cues (e.g., cast shadows, atmospheric perspective in East Asian art).
Occlusion is a strong, early depth cue (objects obscure those behind them).
Philosophical context: Plato’s suspicion of illusionistic art as pander to the unconscious; contrast between idealized iconic forms (Egyptian art) and illusionistic, narrative, human-centered art.
Figure reference (for orientation): A discussion of frontlit vs backlit illumination in illusionistic art is introduced with a reference to spheres showing different lighting.
Note on Maya evidence base: Our knowledge of Classic Maya practice is biased toward Late Classic polychrome vases; surviving mural evidence is limited (Bonampak and the Early Classic B-XIII mural at Uaxactun) due to losses and copywork.
Evidence sources and limitations:
Bonampak murals were discovered in 1946 and are now damaged due to long-term neglect and cleaning mishaps.
The vases’ shading cues are better preserved through Justin Kerr’s rollout photographs; Coe began noticing shading effects in 1971 during a Maya hieroglyphic-writing exhibition.
Early concept introduction: Coe introduces the idea that Maya vases show backlit chiaroscuro (illumination from behind or soft edge lighting) and foreshortening, suggesting a sophisticated approach to three-dimensionality on a small ceramic medium.
Closing thought of Page 1: Sets up the argument for a broader, more nuanced view of Maya illusionism, to be explored with vase painting, mural painting (Bonampak, Uaxactun), and later academic re-evaluations.
ext{Key numerical/contextual references:}
Chauvet Cave age: 35{,}000 years ago.
Greek “revolution” period: roughly 550 ext{ BC} ext{ to } 350 ext{ BC}.
General time horizon for Maya Classic period: Late Classic to Early Classic spans (specific dates appear throughout).
Four illusionistic revolutions as proposed: Upper Paleolithic Europe, Classical Greece, Renaissance Italy, Maya lowlands.
Page 2
Subheading: Seeing with the Brain.
Core idea: Illusions in art arise from perceptual processes. The brain’s visual cortex continuously generates hypotheses about the world based on retinal signals; perception is not fully under conscious control.
Key quotes and references:
Richard Gregory: “Seeing is probably the most sophisticated of all the brain's activities.”
Vilayanur Ramachandran: Our visual experience is based on two-dimensional retinal images, but depth/solidity is derived from cues like shading, perspective, occlusion, and stereoscopic disparity.
Depth cues in retinal images:
Shading and light Source: The brain uses a single sun from above to infer depth; shading strategies are deeply rooted in evolution (countershading as a defensive mechanism in animals).
Enclosure of shaded surfaces by an outline helps convey depth.
Occlusion (overlap) is a fundamental cue: an occluding object implies a nearer position; non-transparent occlusion provides strong depth information.
Limits and interference:
Face recognition is a powerful perceptual cue; humans are “hard-wired” to perceive eyes, noses, and chins as protruding features; even when outlines are removed or obscured, faces can drive depth perception.
Scope of depth-detection devices:
Chiaroscuro is one device among others like linear perspective and texture gradient; cast shadows appear early in Greco-Roman and Renaissance; atmospheric perspective is present in Chinese and Japanese painting; occlusion is universally present, including in European Upper Paleolithic art.
Theoretical framing:
Plato’s stance: He valued iconographic/ideal forms over illusionistic art; would banish mimetic/pictorial art as pander to the lower parts of the soul.
Ends with Paul Hills’ observation on how early Italian painting integrates light with narrative and illusion.
Integration with Maya painting:
Chiaroscuro is not unique to the West; Maya painters employ similar strategies (backlit modeling) to create depth on ceramics and murals.
Figure references: A schematic of frontlit vs backlit spheres (Figure i) is introduced as a teaching example for understanding illumination and depth cues.
Notes on evidence and caveats: The discussion emphasizes how perception underpins illusion in Maya art and how different cultures leverage different perceptual cues to convey depth.
ext{Key theoretical references:}
Richard Gregory, “The Confounded Eye” (Illusion in Nature and Art).
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, “Perceiving Shape from Shadow” (Sci. Am. 1988).
E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion (foundational text on pictorial representation).
Page 3
[Note: Page 3 contains image metadata and garbled text; core ideas are carried forward in Page 4. See Page 4 for core discussion on perception and lines.]
Page 4
Deep dive into perception: Lines and outlines in depth creation.
The visual brain can extract depth from shading even when outlines are present or absent; outlines reinforce depth perception.
The secret of line drawings: Even with minimal shading, contour lines help the brain infer 3D structure.
The role of face-recognition bias: Faces have a special status in perception; they tend to be read as if they project forward.
Aesthetic devices for depth on flat surfaces include:
Shading (global lighting cues),
Outlining of forms,
Foreshortening (not used by Maya in the same way as Western painting, but present in some contexts),
Cast shadows (found in Greco-Roman tradition),
Atmospheric perspective (found in East Asian painting).
Occlusion (overlay) and depth: Occlusion is one of the strongest depth cues and is prominently used in European Upper Paleolithic art and in Maya art, including murals and ceramics.
Plato’s view revisited: Illusion vs. knowledge; high-level knowledge about light sources and three-dimensional objects interacts with perceptual cues to yield a sense of depth.
Figure reference: Figure i (Spheres with frontlit and backlit illumination) used to illustrate how lighting direction affects depth perception.
Overall takeaway: Chiaroscuro and other depth cues are part of a broader perceptual toolkit that multiple cultures deploy to produce three-dimensional illusion on flat surfaces.
Page 5
Theme: Chiaroscuro in Classic Maya painting.
Western vs Maya trajectories:
In ancient Greek/Roman chiaroscuro and Renaissance Italian painting, the light source is often above and in front of the scene.
Masaccio pioneered single-light-source 3D illusion in the Brancacci Chapel; Botticelli expanded to multi-directional lighting (Birth of Venus).
Classic Maya painting exhibits a hallmark of backlit chiaroscuro, i.e., lighting from behind or from a secondary direction to produce depth on ceramics and murals.
Evidence base caveats:
Our knowledge is skewed toward Late Classic polychrome vases; no surviving codices; mural evidence exists only in Bonampak and the Early Classic B-XIII mural at Uaxactun (the latter known from a water-color copy by Antonio Tejeda, as the original was destroyed).
Bonampak murals, discovered in 1946, are now damaged; color integrity diminished by neglect and cleaning.
Early observations on Maya shading:
Coe first noted a phenomenon on Late Classic vases around 1971: a kind of “reverse chiaroscuro” where inner parts of limbs and torsos are shaded while edges are illuminated.
Example: Grolier 30 (Late 8th century, A.D. 700-800) shows: two enthroned figures receiving maize tamales; insides of faces and bodies subtly darkened via semitransparent pigment slips, suggesting diffused light from beyond the scene.
This backlit chiaroscuro is a recurring feature: the same approach appears on other Late Classic vases, including a severed or beheaded scene with foregone foreshortening of a ruler’s bent leg, another sign of depth modeling.
Technical challenges for Maya vase painting:
Small scale and fired ceramic medium drastically alter color; artists must craft complex scenes around cylindrical surfaces; require mastery of hieroglyphic writing and its beautiful script.
Prominent masterpieces and techniques:
A black-background vase (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) with four Maya deities and a decapitated bird; the deity bodies show depth via backlighting; a detail of the Jaguar God of the Underworld with red-pink shading hints at its fire-like nature.
A recurring “pink blush” shading on bodies, throne cushions, and glyphs indicates depth on a wide range of objects.
Additional technique: the “two-toned cue” (red torso with white/light edge) used primarily for human bodies and anthropomorphic deities; an edge-band reveals depth while maintaining a flat base color; this is not merely decoration but an abstract form of backlit chiaroscuro.
Interplay of cues on a single vase: a vase featuring two-toned bodies may also display “pink blush” shading on other elements (e.g., wind god writing a codex) to imply depth, demonstrating multiple depth cues coexisting.
Early Classic ceramics: relatively few chiaroscuro illusionistic examples before the Late Classic; possible cultural or material constraints.
The Greco-Roman analogy and theatre:
Gombrich’s commentary on illusion, perspective, and modeling being tied to theatrical spaces; Spaniards noted Maya theatre-like performance, linking narrative art to stage effects.
Conclusion on page 5: Maya vase painting demonstrates sophisticated depth cues (backlighting, foreshortening, occlusion, two-toned cue, pink blush) that collectively create a three-dimensional impression on a small, fired ceramic medium.
Page 6
Continued discussion of vase imagery and depth cues.
Specific examples and figures referenced:
Figure 2 (AD 700-800) shows private collection vase with enthroned figures; subtle shading and backlighting.
Figure 3 shows a Maya lord—detail of a late Classic vase (A.D. 700-800)—foreshortening and shading on a largely naked body to present solidity; background lighting diffused.
Figure 4 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) depicts four deities and a decapitated bird; top of deity shows backlit chiaroscuro similar to Botticelli’s Venus in terms of subtle backlighting cues.
Figure 5: Jaguar God of the Underworld detail; shading applied to convey depth; orange-red eye emphasizing fiery character.
Figure 6: Detail of vase showing rim depth cues and two-toned shading.
Figure 7: Maize God dancing with a dwarf; the figure exhibits “pink blush” shading and two-toned body shading.
Figure 8: Another dancing Maize God with two-toned shading; the wind god writing a codex shows layering of depth cues across multiple figures.
The perceptual effect of “pink blush” and two-toned shading:
The pink blush shading indicates depth on non-human as well as human figures, including throne cushions and glyphs.
The two-toned cue emphasizes depth for bodies and can be combined with two-toned shading on other elements on the same vessel.
Early Classic limitations re-emerge:
The author notes that Early Classic pictorial ceramics show markedly fewer narrative scenes, and the abundance of illusionistic depth becomes prominent in Late Classic vessels.
Cultural interpretation:
The Maya practice of illusionism is linked to a strong interest in portraiture and human representation, a trait the Olmec apparently influenced, and shared with the Moche of coastal Peru.
The Teotihuacan tradition, by contrast, favors iconic representations with less emphasis on individual differentiation or realistic portraiture; their art is more monumental and less about individual identity.
Thematic synthesis:
The Maya’s interest in human beings, portraits, and writing suggests a “humanistic” orientation similar to Classical Greece and Renaissance Italy, in contrast to the Teotihuacan and Teotihuacano approach.
Final takeaway for page 6: The Late Classic Maya developed a sophisticated, multi-cue illusionism on ceramics that includes backlit chiaroscuro, foreshortening, occlusion, and a distinctive two-toned shading system, contributing to a robust sense of three-dimensionality on small-scale works.
Page 7
Emphasis on the two-toned cue as a distinctive Maya method for body shading.
Key points:
The two-toned cue is applied almost exclusively to bodies of humans and anthropomorphic deities, creating a unified depth effect while maintaining flat color regions.
The two-toned approach can coexist with pink blush shading on other parts of the composition, demonstrating a flexible, layered strategy for depth.
Foreshortening and depth in Maya vases:
Foreshortening is used to convey depth, particularly in depictions of emplaced rulers and other figures with limbs extended toward the viewer.
While linear perspective is not used by Maya (any attempt to show it would brand the vase as fake), foreshortening is a valid depth cue that Maya artists employed effectively.
Reference to Figure 9 (Maya vase, Late Classic, AD 700-800): shows a scene with Maize Gods and other figures, illustrating the depth cues in action.
Transition in subject matter: The Late Classic period sees a shift toward more dynamic, theater-like scenes with gods, kings, queens, and subordinates performing actions, with modelled depth cues to emphasize action and hierarchy.
Concluding note for page 7: The combination of backlit chiaroscuro, foreshortening, occlusion, and two-toned shading marks a mature phase of Maya illusionism on pottery, reinforcing the idea that Maya painters cultivated three-dimensional illusion well before many European traditions.
Page 8
Early Classic vs Late Classic: The emergence of illusionism.
Key statements:
Before the Late Classic, Early Classic polychrome ceramics show remarkably few narrative scenes and relatively less illusionistic depth cues compared to Late Classic ceramics.
Gombrich’s comparison of Greek theater and illusion in classical antiquity is used to frame Maya narrative art in a similar light: the development of illusionistic tricks appears connected to narrative, theatrical presentation.
The role of narrative and theater:
The Spaniards (e.g., Bishop Diego de Landa) were impressed by Maya theatrical performances, which included ritual dramas and farces. Coe suggests that this theater-oriented culture is reflected in Late Classic narrative scenes on vases.
Widespread use and distribution:
The observation that Late Classic polychrome ceramics exhibit a profusion of narration and illusionistic cues, while Early Classic ceramics are more restrained, suggests a cultural evolution toward more complex visual storytelling.
Theoretical anchor:
The Greco-Roman analogy is extended to Maya painting: illusionism becomes a vehicle for narrative, as opposed to mere decorative technique.
Conclusion for page 8: Illusionistic depth cues become more pronounced in the Late Classic period, aligning Maya vase painting with rich narrative scenes and theatrical staging, in contrast to Earlier periods.
Page 9
Bonampak murals and their modern study:
Tejeda’s watercolors provide the most accurate surviving reconstructions of Bonampak’s three painted rooms; they show clear examples of chiaroscuro modeling in human figures.
Heather Hurst and Leonard Ashby conducted large-scale color and infrared photography and multispectral scans to produce half-scale copies revealing 3D modeling; Hurst asserts the Bonampak figures show three-dimensional illusion.
Tonina and San Bartolo findings:
A small mural panel at Tonina’s Grand Acropolis (Structure I17) depicts reclining captive figures, showing backlit modeling consistent with other Maya illusionistic cues from the Late Classic and Pre-Classic periods.
San Bartolo discoveries illuminate the deep roots of Maya mural painting in the Pre-Classic period, with early mural examples showing depth cues that foreshadow later Maya illusionism.
Uaxactun B-XIII mural:
A three-meter-long West Wall mural (Structure B-XIII) indicates early, well-developed chiaroscuro modeling by the end of Early Classic; Tejeda’s copy documents the presence of depth cues earlier than previously thought.
Preclassic and early Classic implications:
If more wall paintings from other sites had survived, Maya illusionism might appear even more deeply rooted and widespread than current evidence suggests.
Summary on page 9: Bonampak murals, Uaxactun's B-XIII, Tonina’s Grand Acropolis, and San Bartolo collectively demonstrate that Maya illusionistic painting, including chiaroscuro modeling and depth cues, has deep roots and broad reach, extending from Pre-Classic into Late Classic periods.
Page 10
Occlusion as a depth cue in Maya mural painting:
Occlusion (overlay) is a central depth cue used to suggest three-dimensionality, dating back to Paleolithic Europe and continuing in Maya illusionism.
Case study: Late Classic Peten polychrome vase (Figure 11):
Depicts a crowd of celebrants before a ruler on a palanquin; several figures have their feet at standard elevation on the ground plane, while surrounding figures recede into depth due to occlusion.
The leftmost warrior is shown in deeper depth through occlusion, demonstrating the painter’s awareness of field position and depth relationships.
Implication for Maya wall painting:
The same occlusion trick used on ceramics appears in mural composition; the artist’s ability to place figures in depth by using occlusion reveals a sophisticated understanding of three-dimensional space.
Figure reference: Figure 11 (Late Classic Peten vase, h ~ 21.5 cm) shows depth cues via occlusion; supports the claim of sophisticated illusionism on small-scale ceramics.
Page 11
Classic Maya humanism:
Coe argues that Classic Maya culture places a high value on portraiture and the human figure, in contrast to the broader Mesoamerican tradition.
Cross-cultural comparisons:
In the Western Hemisphere, only Maya and Olmec (and Moche of coastal Peru) show a sustained interest in individual human beings and human physiognomy, coupled with writing that could express their language—an integrated humanistic program.
Teotihuacan emphasizes iconic representations with recurrent motifs and lacks portraits of rulers or detailed writing in the pre-Conquest period; thus, its art is less focused on individual identity.
Philosophical framing:
The author suggests that the Maya, like ancient Greece and Renaissance Italy, show a human-centered approach to art, focusing on the human body placed in space and time, i.e., a “humanistic” orientation.
The central comparison:
Plato would appreciate the humanistic focus on the human form but might still be uneasy about narrative illusion and time-based scenes; Coe frames Maya humanism as a bridge among cultures with a strong emphasis on human presence and identity.
Conclusion for page 11: Classic Maya humanism centers on portraiture and human figures, aligning Maya art with a tradition that privileges the individual within a social and monumental context, and setting it apart from more iconic, non-portrait traditions like Teotihuacan.
Page 12
References and notes: A sustained scholarly apparatus supporting the arguments, including:
Proskouriakoff, Tatiana. “Artistic Aspects of the Bonampak Paintings.”
Gombrich, E. H. Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation.
Clottes, Jean (ed.). Return to Chauvet Cave.
Gregory, R. L. The Confounded Eye (illus.-nature).
Ramachandran, V. S. Perceiving Shape from Shadow.
Cavanagh, P. The Artist as Neuroscientist.
Hills, Paul. The Light of Early Italian Painting.
Villagra Caleti, Agustin. Bonampak.
Tejeda, Antonio. Tejeda’s mural copies and the Bonampak reconstructions.
Uaxactun excavations and related publications.
Grieder, Terence. Representations of Space and Form in Maya Painting on Pottery (American Antiquity, 1964).
The notes indicate ongoing scholarly debate and revisions based on new methodologies (infrared photography, multispectral scanning, half-scale reconstructions) that illuminate Maya illusionistic practices.
Final point on page 12: Coe acknowledges the need to reassess Maya three-dimensional illusionism, noting that some early analyses may have underestimated the depth cues employed by Classic Maya artists.
Title
Art and Illusion among the Classic Maya — Page-by-Page Notes