Untitled Notes

The antebellum period (before the Civil War, starting in 1861) marked a time of significant social reform movements in the United States.
Reformers during this time focused on various causes including:
  - Establishing free (tax-supported) public schools.
  - Improving treatment of the mentally ill.
  - Controlling or abolishing the sale of alcohol.
  - Winning equal rights for women.
  - Abolishing slavery.
The enthusiasm for reform stems from several historic sources:
  - The Puritan sense of mission.
  - Enlightenment beliefs in human goodness.
  - Politics of Jacksonian democracy.
  - Changing relationships among men and women, social classes, and ethnic groups.
Religious beliefs appeared to be the most significant source of reform enthusiasm.

The early decades of the 19th century experienced a wave of religious revivals in the United States.
These revivals were partly a backlash against Enlightenment rationalism, which prioritized human reason.
Calvinist teachings of original sin and predestination faced rejection as believers embraced more liberal doctrines (e.g., Unitarian Church).
Revivalism began among educated individuals, notably Reverend Timothy Dwight, president of Yale College.
Dwight's revivals inspired a generation of evangelical preachers focused on audience accessibility and the promise of salvation for all.

Charles G. Finney, a Presbyterian minister, initiated a series of emotional revivals in upstate New York in 1823.
Finney's sermons emphasized emotional appeal over rational argument, urging people to publicly declare their faith.
His ideas of salvation through faith and hard work were particularly attractive to the rising middle class.
Due to such frequent revivals, Western New York earned the nickname "burned-over district."

Southern and western frontier revivalists included Baptist and Methodist circuit preachers like Peter Cartwright.
These preachers held dramatic outdoor revivals (camp meetings) that attracted large audiences.
By 1850, Baptists and Methodists became the largest Protestant denominations in the U.S.

Many people believed the world would soon end with the second coming of Jesus, leading to increased religious enthusiasm.
William Miller, a preacher, forecasted a specific date for Jesus's return (October 21, 1844) but was proven wrong.
The Millerites evolved into the Seventh-Day Adventist church despite the failed prediction.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, founded by Joseph Smith in 1830, linked American Indians with the lost tribes of Israel through the Book of Mormon.
Smith faced persecution, leading to migration with followers under Brigham Young to the Utah Territory where they established the New Zion.
Their social organization allowed them to thrive in the wilderness, although polygamy caused tension with the U.S. government.

The Second Great Awakening led to social divisions between newer evangelical sects and older Protestant churches.
This religious fervor triggered various social reform movements primarily in northern states, enhancing the role of activist religious groups in reform efforts.

Romanticism emerged in early 19th century Europe, characterized by a shift from Enlightenment values of order to intuition, individualism, and nature.
In America, transcendentalists, a group of New England thinkers, embodied these romantic ideals criticizing organized religion and materialism.

Notable transcendentalists include:
  - Ralph Waldo Emerson: Advocated for self-reliance, cultural independence from European models, and was a strong critic of slavery.
  - Henry David Thoreau: Conducted a two-year experiment in simple living, later publishing "Walden" (1854) and promoting civil disobedience through works like "On Civil Disobedience."
  - Thoreau’s actions inspired future nonviolent movements led by figures like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Founded in 1841 by George Ripley, Brook Farm was a communal experiment aimed at uniting intellectual and manual labor.
Notable figures included Emerson and Margaret Fuller, but the experiment failed by 1849 due to financial difficulties.

The antebellum period was marked by a rise in communal experiments reflecting diverse reform ideas.
Examples include:
  - The Shakers: A religious community with about 6,000 members by the 1840s who prohibited marriage and sexual relations, leading to a decline by the mid-1900s.
  - The Amana Colonies: Comprised of Germans focusing on communal living, allowing marriage, and surviving into present times but no longer practicing communalism.
  - New Harmony: A failed secular community in Indiana founded by Robert Owen to address Industrial Revolution inequalities.
  - Oneida Community: Founded by John Humphrey Noyes, advocated for economic and social equality with a controversial system of cooperative marriage; it thrived economically by producing high-quality silverware.
  - Fourier Phalanxes: Communities based on Charles Fourier’s ideas on shared living; however, they quickly declined due to American individualism.

The Age of Jackson influenced artistic expression in painting, architecture, and literature through democratic and reform ideals.

Genre painting depicting everyday life became extensive, with notable artists, including:
- George Caleb Bingham, focusing on ordinary citizens in various activities.
- Thomas Cole and Frederick Church, part of the Hudson River School, capturing American landscapes' beauty and encouraging a romantic view of nature.

Architects adapted classical Greek styles to reflect democratic values, with public buildings showcasing columned facades reminiscent of ancient temples.

As nationalism grew post-1812, American literature blossomed with authors focusing on domestic themes:
  - Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper highlighted American settings.
  - Nathaniel Hawthorne’s works like "The Scarlet Letter" critiqued societal norms.
  - Herman Melville’s "Moby-Dick" represented theological and cultural conflicts, exploring deeper themes within American society.

Reform movements evolved, initially focusing on moral persuasion and later transitioning to political action with the establishment of new institutions.

The temperance movement emerged as a response to high alcohol consumption rates (avg. 5 gallons of liquor per person in 1820), aiming to curb societal ills caused by drinking.
The American Temperance Society was founded in 1826 to promote total abstinence pledges.
The Washingtonians formed in 1840 advocating for alcoholism identified as a disease needing treatment.
Supported by workers and factory owners, Maine became the first state to prohibit liquor's manufacture and sale in 1851, with several states following.
The temperance movement would resurge in the late 1870s, culminating in the 18th Amendment in 1919.

In the 1820s and 1830s, reformers highlighted the plight of criminals, mentally ill individuals, and paupers.
Proposals arose for state-supported institutions like prisons, mental hospitals, and poorhouses to provide humane treatment.

Dorothea Dix, horrified by the treatment of the mentally ill, led a nationwide crusade in the 1840s resulting in numerous state legislatures improving mental health care.