Unit 2: Linkage Institutions Review

Linkage Institutions

Structures connecting people to government: elections, parties, interest groups, media. They help set the public agenda.

Demographic Trends and Impact

Based on 2020 census:
• Population shifting to South/West
• Population aging and more urban/suburban
• Increasing racial and ethnic diversity
• Impacts include reapportionment, redistricting, changes in representation, and funding distribution
• Minority-majority shift expected around 2040–2050

Measuring Public Opinion

Public opinion is difficult to gauge because people are often uninformed and shift views quickly.

Scientific Polling Steps:

1. Create unbiased questions
   
   

2. Define the universe
   
   

3. Draw a random, representative sample
   
   

4. Use consistent sampling techniques
   
   

5. Report results and methods
   
   

Political Socialization

How people form political beliefs.
Major influences: family, media, peers, religion, school, work, major events.

Political Ideologies

Liberal, conservative, libertarian, moderate; differ in social and economic policy views.

Chapter 11 - Political Parties

Roles of Parties

• Recruit and nominate candidates
• Provide party labels for voters
• Coordinate officials in government
• Operate government when in power
• Serve as watchdog when out of power
• Provide patronage

Party Organization Levels

National: conventions, platforms, fundraising
State: primaries/caucuses, fundraising, varying structures
Local: grassroots, volunteers, limited resources

Delegates and Voter Behavior

Primary voters and convention delegates tend to be more ideologically extreme than general election voters.

Party Eras and Realignment

Major eras:
• Early party development
• Democratic dominance (1800 -  1860)
• Republican dominance (1860 -  1932)
• New Deal Democrats (1932 -  1968)
• Divided government (1968 -  present)

Critical elections and crises often trigger party realignments.

Weakening of Parties Today

• Candidates rely less on parties
• Rise of independent voters
• Increased role of independent groups and Super PACs
• Primaries weaken party leadership influence

Minor/Third Parties

Barriers: single-member districts, winner-take-all, ballot access laws, funding, debate rules, two-party tradition
Impact: raise issues, influence major parties, sometimes act as spoilers.

Chapter 12 -  Campaigns, Elections, and Voting

Voting in the U.S.

Population: 340 million
Eligible voters: ~236 million
Registered: ~174 million
Turnout varies by presidential vs. midterm elections

Voter Registration and Turnout Issues

Causes of low turnout: registration requirements, weekday voting, lack of efficacy, lack of trust, no penalties for not voting
Improving turnout: automatic registration, early/absentee voting, mail-in voting, same-day registration

Voter ID Laws Debate

Supporters: prevent impersonation, increase confidence
Opponents: little evidence of fraud, burdensome for some voters

Voter Choice Influences

• Party identification
• Demographics (age, race, income, education)
• Candidate character
• Issues
• Campaign messages

Voting Models

Rational choice
Retrospective voting
Party-line voting
Mandate theory (winner claims authority to pursue agenda)

Types of Elections

Primary
General
Runoff
Recall
Referendum
Initiative/ballot proposal

Primaries vs Caucuses

Primary: private ballot, higher turnout, closed or open
Caucus: public meeting, discussion, low turnout, select delegates

Electoral College

• Based on congressional representation
• Can produce mismatch between popular vote and electoral vote
• Small states overrepresented
• Focus on swing states
• Faithless electors
Changing the system is difficult.

Campaigns and Strategy

Messaging, targeting swing states, debates, and GOTV efforts.

Campaign Finance

FECA (1974): created FEC, limited donations, required disclosure
Buckley v. Valeo: spending by candidates cannot be limited
BCRA (2002): raised limits, attempted ad restrictions
Citizens United (2010): unlimited independent spending by corporations/unions allowed

Outside Groups and Super PACs

Unlimited fundraising/spending, cannot coordinate with campaigns, sometimes undisclosed donors.

Chapter 13 - Media

Evolution of Media

Radio → TV → 24-hour news → internet and social media
Trend toward narrowcasting and fragmented audiences
Newspapers declining but offer depth

Media Roles

Gatekeeper: sets agenda
Scorekeeper: tracks campaigns, polls
Watchdog: investigates government

Regulation

Print/online: few restrictions
Broadcast TV/radio: FCC licensing and limited rules (Equal Time Rule)
Cable/streaming: largely unregulated

Media and Government

Media shapes candidate image, agenda, and public focus.
Leaks and trial balloons gauge reactions.
Perceived bias exists, though profit and audience pressures often shape coverage.

Chapter 14 - Interest Groups

Types of Interest Groups

• Economic/business groups
• Trade associations
• Labor unions
• Single-issue groups
• Equality groups
• Public-interest groups
• Consumer and environmental groups

Influence Methods

Direct: lobbying, drafting legislation, testifying, meetings, PAC donations, litigation
Indirect: grassroots mobilization, public pressure, media campaigns, coalition-building

Why People Join

• Sense of duty
• Selective/material benefits
• Shared ideology
• Community or professional identity

Free Rider Problem

Non-members benefit from group successes without contributing; especially affects large groups like unions.