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Levels of Classification of an Organism

  • Classification Hierarchy:
    • Atom
    • Definition: The basic unit of a chemical element, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
    • Example: Carbon atom (C).
    • Cell
    • Definition: The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism.
    • Example: Muscle cell.
    • Tissue
    • Definition: A group of cells that work together to perform a similar function.
    • Example: Epithelial tissue.
    • Organ
    • Definition: A collection of tissues that perform a specific function within an organism.
    • Example: Heart.
    • Organ System
    • Definition: A group of organs that work together to perform complex functions for the organism.
    • Example: Digestive system.
    • Organism
    • Definition: A living entity made up of one or more cells.
    • Example: Human.

Study of Disease

  • Definition: The branch of science that studies the causes, effects, and treatment options for diseases and medical conditions.

Anatomical Positions of the Body

  • Reference: Page 19
  • Key Positions:
    • Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides with palms facing forward.

Planes of the Body

  • Reference: Page 19
  • Common Planes:
    • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right segments.
    • Coronal Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.
    • Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

Body Cavities

  • Types of Body Cavities:
    • Dorsal: Includes the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord).
    • Ventral: Includes thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs).

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

  • Identify the Organs:
    • Upper Right Quadrant: Liver, gallbladder.
    • Upper Left Quadrant: Stomach, spleen.
    • Lower Right Quadrant: Appendix, right ovary.
    • Lower Left Quadrant: Left ovary, sigmoid colon.

Muscular Sheet Dividing Cavities

  • Structure: Diaphragm
  • Function: Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity, aiding in respiration.

Atom and Chemical Organization

  • Structure of an Atom: Made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
  • Parts of an Atom:
    • Proton: Positively charged particle located in the nucleus.
    • Neutron: Neutral particle located in the nucleus.
    • Electron: Negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus. Location: Outside the nucleus in electron shells.

Triglyceride

  • Definition: A type of fat found in the blood, consisting of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
  • Reference: Page 38

Functional Unit of DNA

  • Definition: Nucleotide
  • Components of a Nucleotide:
    • Sugar (deoxyribose in DNA),
    • Phosphate group,
    • Nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
  • Reference: Page 39

Parts of a Cell

  • Three Main Parts:
    • Plasma Membrane
    • Cytoplasm
    • Nucleus
  • Reference: Pages 65-66

Organelles and Functions

  • Key Organelles:
    • Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum: Synthesis of proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER).
    • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
    • Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP.

Relationship of Ribosomes and RNA

  • Functionality:
    • Ribosomes use RNA (mRNA) to synthesize proteins.

Function of the Nucleus

  • Main Function: Serves as the control center of the cell, housing DNA and regulating gene expression.
  • Reference: Page 86

Nervous Tissue

  • Structures and Function:
    • Neurons: Transmit impulses.
    • Glial cells: Support and protect neurons.
  • Reference: Page 89

Connective Tissue

  • Overview: Facilitates support, protection, and transport in the body. Varieties include loose, dense, and specialized connective tissues.
  • Reference: Page 89

Classification of Epithelial Tissue

  • Definition and Classification: Classified by cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and number of layers (simple, stratified).
  • Location: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities and organs, and makes up glands.
  • Reference: Page 88

Transitional Epithelium

  • Review: Understand its structure, location (bladder), and function (stretching).
  • Reference: Page 77

Types of Cartilage

  • Different Types and Examples:
    • Hyaline Cartilage: Most common, found in joints.
    • Elastic Cartilage: Found in the ear.
    • Fibrocartilage: Found in intervertebral discs.
  • Reference: Page 81

Goblet Cells

  • Purpose and Function: Secrete mucus, providing lubrication and protection in the respiratory and digestive tracts.
  • Reference: Page 76

Integumentary System

  • Main Function: Protects the body, regulates temperature, and synthesizes vitamin D.
  • Reference: Page 109

Types of Muscle Tissue

  • Three Different Types and Their Locations:
    • Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones, voluntary control.
    • Cardiac Muscle: Heart, involuntary control.
    • Smooth Muscle: Walls of hollow organs, involuntary control.

Tissue Connections

  • Structure: Tendons connect muscles to bones.

Exocrine vs Endocrine Glands

  • Definitions:
    • Exocrine Glands: Secrete substances into ducts (e.g., sweat glands).
    • Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid).

Respiratory System Function

  • Gas Exchange Location: Alveoli in the lungs.
  • Reference: Page 110

Digestive Tract Organs

  • Differentiate Primary vs Accessory Organs:
    • Primary: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines.
    • Accessory: Liver, pancreas, gallbladder.
  • Reference: Page 110

Structures of the Lymphatic System

  • Overview: Includes lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, spleen, and thymus, vital for immune response.
  • Reference: Page 110

Signs vs Symptoms

  • Differentiation:
    • Sign: Objective evidence of disease (measurable).
    • Symptom: Subjective report of what the patient feels.
  • Reference: Page 140

Syndrome

  • Definition: A group of symptoms that consistently occur together or a condition characterized by a particular set of symptoms.

Epidemiology Terminology

  • Definitions:
    • Epidemic: Sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected.
    • Endemic: A disease or condition regularly found among particular people or in a certain area.
    • Pandemic: An epidemic that has spread over multiple countries or continents.
  • Reference: Page 140

Scientific Name of a Tumor

  • Definition: Neoplasm (new growth).
  • Reference: Page 142

Cancer Risk Factors

  • Overview: Genetic predisposition, lifestyle choices (smoking, diet), environmental exposures (radiation, chemicals).
  • Reference: Page 142

Prion-Associated Diseases

  • Examples: Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, Mad Cow Disease.
  • Reference: Page 141

Transmission Mechanism of Disease

  • Overview: Routes include direct contact, airborne transmission, vector-borne transmission, and contaminated food or water.
  • Reference: Pages 126-127

Fungal Diseases

  • Overview: Familiarize with common fungal infections such as candidiasis, ringworm, and their causes, as presented in the referenced table.
  • Reference: Page 124

Inflammation Response

  • Local vs Systemic Inflammation:
    • Local: Limited to the area of injury, signs include redness, swelling, heat, pain.
    • Systemic: Affects the whole body, signs include fever and malaise.
  • What Occurs During Inflammation: Blood vessels dilate, increased blood flow, and influx of white blood cells.
  • References: Pages 134-137.

Tumor Classifications and Examples

  • Overview on Classifications:
    • Benign: Non-cancerous, do not invade nearby tissues.
    • Malignant: Cancerous, invade surrounding tissues, can metastasize.
  • Reference: Page 142

Methods of Detecting Cancer

  • Examples: Imaging techniques (X-ray, MRI), biopsies, blood tests.
  • Reference: Page 142

Severity of Burns and Recovery

  • Overview: Classifications:
    • 1st Degree: Red, dry skin; painful.
    • 2nd Degree (Partial Thickness): Blisters, swelling; painful.
    • 3rd Degree (Full Thickness): White, charred skin; numb.
  • Recovery Considerations: Varies with severity and depth of burn.
  • Reference: Page 162

Rules of Nines

  • Purpose: Estimation of the total body surface area affected by burns.

Classifications of Body Membranes

  • Main Types:
    • Epithelial Membranes: Mucous and serous membranes.
    • Connective Tissue Membranes: Synovial membranes.
  • Three Main Epithelial Membranes:
    • Cutaneous (skin): protects the underlying structures.
    • Mucous: lines body cavities that open to the exterior.
    • Serous: lines closed cavities and covers organs.
  • Reference: Page 171

Cutaneous Membrane

  • Other Name: Skin.

Decubitus Ulcers

  • Definition: Bedsores resulting from prolonged pressure on the skin, leading to tissue damage.
  • Reference: Page 165

Visceral vs Parietal Membranes

  • Differentiation:
    • Visceral: Covers organs.
    • Parietal: Lines cavities of the body.
  • Serous Membranes:
    • Parietal Pleura: Lines thoracic cavity.
    • Visceral Pleura: Covers the lungs.
    • Parietal Peritoneum: Lines the abdominal cavity.
    • Visceral Peritoneum: Covers the abdominal organs.
  • Reference: Page 148

Hair Loss

  • Medical Term: Alopecia.

Arrector Pili Muscle

  • Function: Causes hair to stand on end (goosebumps) when contracted.

Hair Growth Process

  • Review Overview: Phases of hair growth: anagen, catagen, and telogen phases (reference page 154).

Sebaceous Glands

  • Function: Secrete oil (sebum) to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair.
  • Reference: Page 156

Structure of Long Bones

  • Components: Diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), and associated structures (medullary cavity, periosteum).
  • Reference: Page 216

Bone Development Process

  • Cells Involved: Osteoblasts (build bone), osteoclasts (break down bone).
  • Reference: Page 217

Facial Bones and Sinuses

  • Study: Names and locations of facial bones (nasal, maxilla, mandible) and associated sinuses (maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid).

Vertebral Column Divisions

  • Sections: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.
  • Associated Vertebrae: Number and characteristics of vertebrae in each section are clearly defined in literature.

True vs False Ribs

  • Differentiation:
    • True Ribs: 1-7, attach directly to the sternum via costal cartilage.
    • False Ribs: 8-12, do not attach directly to the sternum.
  • Reference: Table 8-4, Page 193.

Diarthroses Functions

  • Definition: Freely movable joints characterized by a synovial cavity, articular cartilage, and joint capsule.
  • Functionality Overview: Movement ranges, types of movements allowed, examples of each.
  • References: Pages 201-203.

Metabolic Bone Disorders

  • Conditions Reviewed: Osteoporosis, Paget's disease, osteomalacia.
  • Reference: Pages 204-206.

Types of Bones

  • Classification: Long, short, flat, irregular.
  • Examples:
    • Long: Femur.
    • Short: Carpals.
    • Flat: Scapula.
    • Irregular: Vertebrae.

Compact vs Cancellous Bone

  • Difference:
    • Compact: Dense bone, forms outer layer, supports weight.
    • Cancellous (spongy) Bone: Lighter, porous, found inside bones, houses red marrow.

Types of Muscular Tissue

  • Overview:
    • Skeletal: Striated, voluntary.
    • Cardiac: Striated, involuntary.
    • Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary.
  • Reference: Review Figure 9-1 on Page 224.

Muscle Movements

  • Key Movements Overview: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation.
  • Reference: Pages 233-234.

Muscular System Functions

  • Functions: Movement, maintenance of posture, heat production.
  • Reference: Page 246.

Muscular Conditions

  • Conditions Reviewed: Muscle strains, dystrophy, cramps.
  • Reference: Page 248.

Nervous System Divisions

  • Differentiation:
    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS.

Types of Neurons

  • Three Types:
    • Afferent Neurons: Carry sensory information to the CNS.
    • Efferent Neurons: Carry motor commands from the CNS.
    • Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons.
  • Reference: Page 254.

Multiple Sclerosis

  • Overview: A disease characterized by the degeneration of myelin in the nervous system, leading to various neurological symptoms.
  • Reference: Pages 256-257.

Vital Centers Location

  • Definition: Centers located in the brainstem responsible for autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

  • Location: Surrounds the brain and spinal cord, provides cushioning and support.
  • Reference: Page 275.

Shingles Cause

  • Caused by: Reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox).

Parkinson’s Disease

  • Description: A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia (slowness of movement).
  • Reference: Pages 263-264.