Rodolfo Acuna, Occupied America (1)
Chapter Overview
This chapter offers a comprehensive examination of the U.S. invasion of Mexico's northern territory, exploring the pivotal events leading up to this military engagement. The historical context originates in 1613 with the influential theologian Alexander Whitaker, often referred to as "The Apostle of Virginia," who set the stage for later American expansionist ideologies. Key figures, including Puritan leaders and Founding Fathers, articulated notions of American entitlement to land, framing the expansion as a divine right underpinned by Manifest Destiny. This evolution of thought culminated in a series of territorial claims and conflicts, particularly notable during the invasions of Texas in 1836 and Mexico in 1847.
Learning Objectives
Interrelationship between Treaties: Analyze how the treaties from 1819 through 1848 interlinked with the motivations behind American expansion efforts.
Impact of Slavery: Discuss the significant role slavery played in motivating American filibusters in Texas, including the yearning for land suitable for cotton cultivation.
Accountability for War: Explore conflicting perspectives on accountability for the outbreak and conduct of the Mexican-American War.
Understanding Historical Sources: Demonstrate an understanding of maps and archival sources that illustrate territorial changes and impacts on populations.
Territorial Changes: Identify the territorial losses experienced by Mexico and the corresponding gains for the United States post-war.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Explain the pivotal Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, examining its terms and lasting effects on Mexico-U.S. relations, including its impact on the livelihoods of Mexican citizens in territories ceded to the U.S.
Who Started the War?
The characterization of U.S. actions as an invasion remains a contentious topic among historians. Notable voices like historian Robert L. Kelley and Arizona Attorney General Tom Horne critique the narrative as biased against the U.S. In contrast, Ulysses S. Grant controversially described the Mexican-American War as an unjust conflict, emphasizing the dynamics of power where a stronger nation asserted dominion over a weaker one.
Historical Context: Mexican Independence
The independence movement in Mexico was ignited in 1810 by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who became a symbol for the underclass striving for reform. Following this, various leaders, such as José María Morelos y Pavón, sought to navigate the newly independent nation through a path fraught with political instability and social inequality. Instead of fostering unity, these early movements resulted in fragmentation and chaos, hampering effective long-term governance.
Simultaneously, the U.S. expanded aggressively through territorial acquisitions such as the Louisiana Purchase while fostering a Euro-American mindset of entitlement to land, further straining relations with Mexico.
Background to the Texas Invasion
The term "filibuster" in American political discourse often denotes a practice of unauthorized military expeditions, while in Latin America, it evokes images of militant adventurers leading incursions into foreign territories. A slew of historical filibustering events, particularly in Florida and Texas, catalyzed a surge of American settlers driven by economic opportunities and land prospects, complicating relationships with Mexican governance. Violations of agreements by American settlers, especially concerning the institution of slavery, intensified the friction between American interests and Mexican sovereignty.
Broken Promises
The initial agreements between American settlers and the Mexican government, which mandated compliance with local laws, were frequently flouted when they conflicted with the settlers' interests in slavery. The Edwards affair served as a tangible manifestation of the settlers' entitlement mentality; this incident incited revolts that were legitimized in the eyes of U.S. media, portraying the conflicts through an American-centric lens.
The Role of Slavery
In response to the rising tides of abolitionism, Mexico enforced a ban on slavery in 1829. However, American slaveholders found ways to subvert these laws, often reclassifying enslaved individuals to retain their economic interests. These actions, combined with U.S. pressures for annexation, escalated already tense relations, making conflict increasingly inevitable.
The Land and Profit Motive
The rapid proliferation of U.S. land companies seeking to promote land grants exacerbated tensions in Texas. These entities fueled speculation and economic ambitions, leading to an untenable situation where U.S. military actions during the conflict not only sought to secure territorial gains but also established a troubling precedent for future expansionist policies.
The Invasion of Texas and Myth of the Alamo
The narrative surrounding the Alamo has been romanticized over the years, yet many defenders were not long-term residents of Texas. The mythological portrayal stands in stark contrast with the harsh realities of the struggle for power between Mexicans and Euro-American settlers. This juxtaposition of heroism against a backdrop of conquest serves to obscure the complexities of identity and land ownership in 19th-century North America.
Aftermath and Consequences of War
Following Mexico's defeat, the U.S. successfully asserted extensive territorial claims, marking a significant shift in the geopolitical landscape. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo finalized the cession of vast territories to the U.S. and initiated complications regarding identity and citizenship that would persist for Mexicans and Native Americans in these newly acquired lands.
Conclusion
The Mexican-American War left a legacy of resentment and systemic inequity that continues to resonate in contemporary discourses surrounding race, land rights, and cultural identity. The ongoing debate over the narratives of U.S.-Mexico relations highlights the importance of revisiting historical accounts to understand contemporary societal dynamics and injustices.