Prosocial Behaviour Notes

The Murder of Kitty Genovese:
- On March 13th, 1964, Kitty Genovese was stabbed to death outside her apartment in Queens, New York, by Winston Moseley.
- The attack reportedly lasted for nearly an hour, but no one called the police or intervened.
The Bystander Effect:
- The presence of others inhibits helping.
- Diffusion of Responsibility: As the number of people present increases, individuals feel less personal responsibility and become less likely to help.
The Seizure Study (1968):
- Participants discussed campus life with others over an intercom.
- They believed they were talking to either one other person or two to five other people.
- One of the "participants" simulated a seizure.
- If participants thought they were alone, many tried to help.
- The more people available to help, the fewer helped.

A failure at any step will lead to inaction (i.e. not helping).

Notice the emergency
- Many emergency situations are ambiguous, and we may not notice the cues indicating an emergency.
Interpret as emergency
- In the face of uncertainty, we look to others (Informational social influence).
Assume responsibility
- Bystander effect/Diffusion of responsibility.
Know what to do
- Expertise is required to know what to do.
Decide to help
- Weigh costs of helping vs. not helping.

Costs of Not Helping/Benefits of Helping:
- Risk to person in need.
- Warm glow of helping.
- Enhanced reputation.
Costs of Helping/Benefits of Not Helping:
- Personal risk.
- Legal concerns (liability).

Counteract ambiguity
- Make it clear that you need help.
Reduce diffusion of responsibility
- Single people out: "I need help! You, in the blue shirt, call Triple 0!"

Studies involving more than 7,700 participants over 50 years show the bystander effect.
The bystander effect was smaller when situations were perceived as dangerous compared to non-dangerous ones.
The bystander effect can be seen in rats and young children.

People with a ‘helpful personality’:
- People who are more helpful in one situation are more likely to be helpful in another.
- Empathy is an important contributing trait.
- Empathy reflects the natural ability to perceive and be sensitive to the emotional states of others, coupled with a motivation to care for their well-being.
- $Helping\ behaviour \longrightarrow Empathic\ response$
People who are highly religious.
- Civic Engagement Index, Religious vs. Not Religious
- Religious people tend to volunteer their time and assistance to others more than not religious people.
People who have received help reciprocate help.
- Direct reciprocity: X helps Y because Y helped X.
  - $X \longrightarrow Y$
- Upstream indirect reciprocity: X helps Y because Z helped X.
  - $Z \longrightarrow X \longrightarrow Y$
- Downstream indirect reciprocity: X helps Y because Y helped Z.
  - $X \longrightarrow Y \longrightarrow Z$
People who perceive the person in need as similar to them.
- Study showing people are more likely to help someone wearing a Manchester shirt (92%) compared to a plain shirt (33%) or a Liverpool shirt (30%).
People who have witnessed another person behaving exceptionally morally (i.e., who are ‘morally elevated’).
- People donated more money after witnessing moral elevation.

Media:
- Exposure to prosocial media can increase helping behavior.
Education:
- Participants who listened to a lecture on bystander intervention were more likely to help a ‘student’ lying on the floor two weeks later (67% vs. 27%).