Die Römische Republik und das Frankenreich
The Foundations and Spirit of the Roman Republic
The Roman Republic, or "res publica" in Latin, translates literally to "public matter" or "public affair." This was the name the Romans gave to their state, though the question of whether the state truly belonged to the entire people remains a subject of historical debate. Central to the Roman identity was a deep-seated community feeling and the conviction that the "Tüchtigkeit" (prowess or diligence) of their ancestors had made Rome great and significant. In the early days of Rome, all inhabitants were farmers who lived by hard work and frugal management. This agrarian lifestyle was seen as the only honorable way to live for both the noble and the common Roman; engaging in trade or financial business was considered dishonorable.
Even as Rome acquired immense wealth in later centuries—leading to a society where men and women dressed in expensive Chinese silk and heavy jewelry—politicians continued to evoke the ideal of the simple, frugal lifestyle of the early Republic in their speeches. Multiple laws were passed in attempts to curb the Roman inclination toward luxury, though these legislative efforts ultimately proved ineffective at stopping the spread of opulence.
Religion and its Collective Importance
Religion was an omnipresent force in Roman life, touching almost every personal and political sphere. Like the Greeks, the Romans worshipped many gods, often the same deities under different Latin names. Roman families maintained a house altar, which could take the form of a wall painting or a stone pedestal, where the sacred hearth fire was tended and the "Hausgötter" (domestic gods) were honored. These altars also housed busts of ancestors and statues of the legendary forefather, Aeneas.
The Romans placed significant emphasis on divine approval; before launching a military campaign, they consulted the gods. This task fell to officials known as Augurs, who interpreted signs such as the flight patterns and cries of birds to determine the divine will. If the gods appeared to favor an undertaking, the project proceeded. To remain in the gods' good graces, the Romans offered drink offerings, animal sacrifices, and gifts of crops. In the public sphere, cults served to ensure success in life, ward off disaster, or provide atonement for errors committed by the citizenry.
The Conflict of the Orders: Patricians and Plebeians
Rome's early history was marked by monarchical rule; from approximately B.C., Etruscan kings ruled for about years. This changed when noble Romans, who possessed horses and weapons, expelled the Etruscan rulers. These noblemen, known as Patricians, divided power and land among themselves, occupying all high offices in the state, religion, and military. They termed this new form of government a Republic. By around B.C., the "res publica" consisted of approximately male inhabitants and controlled a territory extending roughly south of the city.
In times of war, the non-noble inhabitants, known as Plebeians, were required to serve as foot soldiers. They had to manufacture or purchase their own weapons and leave their farms and workshops unattended. Because they were mostly simple farmers, craftsmen, or traders, the financial burden of war often forced them into debt with the wealthy Patricians. Legal changes began in the th century B.C. with the "Twelve Tables" (Zwölftafelgesetz), which recorded Roman laws for the first time, improving the Plebeians' legal status and granting them claims to land from conquered territories. Nevertheless, constant conflict persisted between and B.C. through which the Plebeians gradually achieved a share of political power.
Institutions of the Roman Republic
The Senate stood at the center of the political order. It was the place where the fundamental lines of policy were decided, including decisions on war and peace. It met in the "Curia" on the edge of the "Forum Romanum." Originally comprised of men (later increasing to ) from influential Patrician families, it eventually opened up to wealthy Plebeians starting around B.C.
Magistrates were the Roman officials. To prevent the abuse of power, their system was governed by the principles of "Annuität" (annuity), meaning they served for only one year, and "Kollegialität" (collegiality), meaning every office was held by at least two men. At the pinnacle were two Consuls. Other magistrates included Praetors (judiciary), Aediles (public order), and Quaestors (finances). Censors were responsible for monitoring morals and tax revenues. These were honorary positions without pay, which meant only the wealthy could afford them. High costs and bribery were commonplace during elections, and those who lacked speaking skills often hired professional orators.
The People's Tribunes (Volkstribune), numbering ten, were elected by the assembly of Plebeians to protect Plebeian rights. Their primary power was the "Veto" (Latin for "I forbid"), which allowed them to block any decision made by the Senate or other magistrates. Additionally, the People's Assembly (Volksversammlung) included all arms-bearing male citizens with Roman citizenship; women and slaves were excluded. Voting was conducted by wealth or by the residential districts. Wealthy citizens had disproportionate influence, and while the urban population was large, they were concentrated into only four districts, while the other were rural. This favored wealthy landowners who could afford to travel to the city to vote. Despite internal conflicts, all Romans shared a rejection of absolute rule, allowing for a Dictator only in times of extreme danger for a maximum of six months.
Panem et Circenses: Bread and Games
During the imperial era, many people migrated to Rome hoping for a better life but ended up unemployed and impoverished. To prevent urban unrest and influence public opinion favorably, the emperors ensured the population was fed and entertained. This policy was known as "panem et circenses" (bread and games). Grain was imported from the provinces and distributed for free to the needy. Simultaneously, spectacular entertainment such as chariot races and gladiatorial combat was organized.
The Circus Maximus was the primary venue for chariot races, while the Colosseum in Rome became the most famous site for gladiatorial fights and animal hunts. These games were not merely for pleasure; they had deep political significance. Augustus and his successors exercised strict control over the games and were often present. In the absence of traditional assemblies, the games became a venue where the crowd could chant demands for things like lower taxes or better food supplies directly to the ruler and the Senate.
Augustus and the Transition to Monarchy
Following the assassination of Julius Caesar, a power struggle erupted. His adopted heir, Augustus (formerly Octavian), emerged victorious and became the sole ruler in B.C. His reign brought a long-lasting period of peace to Rome, ending the era of civil wars. In B.C., the Senate granted him the title "Augustus" (The Exalted). While he solemnly declared that the Republic had been restored, he was effectively an absolute ruler, and Rome had become a monarchy.
Augustus called himself "Princeps" (First Citizen) to appear modest and avoid the hated title of king. This form of government became known as the "Prinzipat" (Principate). Although he officially remained part of the republican system and subject to the Senate, he chose the senators himself, ensuring their loyalty. He took the name "Caesar," which evolved into the title of "Kaiser" (Emperor) for all subsequent rulers. To consolidate power and prevent rivals from rising, he made himself the commander-in-chief of all legions, downsized the army, and provided veterans with land and money to ensure their loyalty. He promoted art, culture, and architecture—transforming Rome into a city of marble—and fostered the "Kaiserkult" (Emperor cult) through public works and statues. Augustus ruled for years until his death in A.D.
Comparison of Rule: Rome vs. China
The Roman and Chinese empires present contrasting models of imperial rule. In China, Qin Shi Huangdi (meaning "First Exalted God-Emperor of Qin") founded a hereditary monarchy around B.C. Succession was strictly within the family (sons, brothers, or nephews). His legitimacy was rooted in the "Mandate of Heaven," viewing the emperor as a "Son of Heaven" who served as the link between gods and men. The Chinese emperor lived in a "golden cage"—secluded in magnificent palaces like Chang'an, rarely leaving the capital, and focusing on religious duties and moral perfection. The bureaucracy was managed by officials who had to pass exams.
In contrast, the Roman Emperor's legitimacy was primarily based on military and political merit. While Augustus and his successors emphasized their divine favor, they had to be visible to the public and the soldiers. Roman emperors traveled throughout the empire and to the frontiers (Limes). Augustus, in particular, maintained a facade of simplicity, wearing hand-woven togas and living in a modest house. While the Chinese emperor was a secluded, sacred figure, the Roman Emperor acted as the "pater patriae" (Father of the Fatherland) and the active commander of the military.
The Crisis and Fall of the Roman Empire
The decline of Rome was a long process with multiple causes rather than a single event. Internally, the empire became too large to manage from a single center. This led to its split into the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East (with Constantinople as the Eastern capital). This division was expensive, leading to high taxes, poverty, and hunger. The political climate became increasingly unstable, with some centuries seeing nearly different rulers. Corruption was rampant.
Externally, around A.D., the Huns migrated from Asia into Eastern Europe, pushing Germanic tribes into Roman territory. These tribes ultimately invaded the empire, leading to the plundering of Rome. In A.D., the Germanic tribes forced the last Western emperor, Romulus Augustus, to step down, marking the traditional date for the end of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the conversion to Christianity (starting with Constantine in A.D. and becoming the state religion under Theodosius in A.D.) fundamentally altered Roman traditions and culture, which many historians also view as the end of the classical Roman world.
The Rise of the Franks and Charlemagne
The Franks emerged from a merger of several small Germanic tribes. Under Chlodwig I (Clovis) of the Merovingian dynasty, who took power as a -year-old, the Franks became a major power by around A.D. Chlodwig converted to Catholic Christianity to unite his people and established the Catholic Church as a powerful ally. After the Merovingian power waned, the "Hausmeier" (Mayors of the Palace), such as Karl Martell, became the true political leaders. His son, Pippin III (the Short), founded the Carolingian dynasty when he was crowned king in with the Pope's blessing.
Pippin's son, Karl der Große (Charlemagne), significantly expanded the empire to the Pyrenees. On December , A.D., he was crowned Roman Emperor by the Pope in Rome. Although Einhard, his biographer, claimed Karl reached a height of seven feet (which would be by the standards of the time), modern skeletal research suggests he was actually tall—still exceptionally tall for that era. He established "Pfalzen" (palatial residences) throughout the empire instead of a single capital. Following his death, the Treaty of Verdun in A.D. divided the empire, laying the early foundations for what would eventually become Germany and France.
Questions & Discussion
Question: Why were Christians persecuted in the Roman Empire? Response: Christians were viewed with deep skepticism and seen as dangerous because they refused to worship the Emperor as a god or participate in sacrifices to Roman gods, citing the first of the Ten Commandments. Their practice of gathering in secret locations led to rumors of cruel rituals, such as drinking human blood.
Question: How did Christianity become the state religion? Response: The turning point occurred in A.D. when Emperor Constantine, facing a critical battle against Maxentius, prayed to the Christian God for help. After winning the battle with the cross on his soldiers' shields, he issued the Edict of Milan in A.D., allowing free worship. Finally, in A.D., Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the state religion and banned non-Christian religions.
Question: What are the differences between Einhard's description of Charlemagne's coronation and other sources? Response: Einhard claimed that the coronation was a surprise and that Karl would not have entered the church had he known the Pope's intention. Other sources suggest it was a calculated political act, partly because a woman was ruling in Byzantium at the time, which provided a pretext for crowning a new emperor in the West to restore Roman dignity.