Originated from the western Turkish tribe known as the Kayi (Suku Kayi).
During Genghis Khan's aggression in Turkistan, the Kayi people felt threatened as leaders of the tribe.
Sulaiman Shah sought protection from Jalaluddin Mungurbiti bin Khawarizmi, the ruler of Transoxiana, but Transoxiana eventually fell under Mongol control.
Sulaiman Shah led his followers to Kurdistan and Azerbaijan.
His attempt to enter Sham (Levant) was blocked by a wide river. When crossing the Euphrates, a flood carried him away and he died.
Sulaiman Shah left four sons: Sankurtakin, Toghdi (Togdai), Ertoghruyl (Ertoghrul), and Dandan.
After Sulaiman Shah's death, the large family split into two groups: one returning to the homeland, the other continuing expeditions in Asia Minor with Ertoghruyl and Dandan.
In the journey, Ertoghruyl (the third son) was installed as the new leader, and they eventually settled in Anatolia.
In a battle between the forces of Sultan Alaudin I of the Seljuk Rum and the Byzantine Empire, Ertoghruyl and his followers aided Alaudin I, contributing to a victory. Grateful, Alaudin I granted Ertoghruyl lands in the Armenian mountains and the Saguta valley along the Sakarya River.
Ertoghruyl and his troops were tasked by Alaudin I to conquer and control the Black Sea coast, from Bursa to Eskishehir.
Ertoghruyl’s troops were given the title Muqaddamah Sultan (vanguard sultans). Ertoghruyl himself gave himself the title “Sultan Oki” (forehead of the sultan).
In 1288 M, Ertoghruyl died; Alaudin I elevated his son Osman as successor. Because of his loyalty, Alaudin I awarded Osman the title Bey, granted broader lands, and the right to mint currency; Osman’s name was proclaimed in every Friday sermon.
In 1299 M, Ghazan Khan of the Mongols attacked the Seljuk Rum, but Osman was able to repulse the attack.
Shortly after this, Alaudin I died without a suitable successor from the Kayi, which Os|man leveraged to declare himself Padishah Al-Usmaniyah (King of the Osmanli clan). The Ottoman Empire was thus established with its first capital at Qorah Hisyar (Iskisyiyar).
Over time, the Ottoman state evolved into a dynamic Islamic empire, from its birth to its eventual decline. The Ottoman contribution to the Islamic world’s development in the East is still felt today. Some early Indonesian ulama are said to have originated from the Ottoman period, sent by the sultans to propagate Islam in Indonesia.
B. Strategies and Administrative Policies of the Ottoman Empire
The rise of the Ottoman Empire is closely linked to the weakening of the Abbasid caliphate toward its final crisis. Leadership vacuum and fragile governance helped the Ottomans reassert and restore Islamic rule and civilization.
Usman I (699-726 H / 1299-1326 M)
Founder of the Ottoman state.
Advocated a foundation based on the unity of Turkish tribes. Usman was brave, sincere, just, and wise.
Built a volunteer army of ghazi warriors (fighting for the cause of Allah). The fighters were commonly described as al-Ghazi, consisting of ikhwān (brotherhood) of the Baqtişī order.
Usman’s conquests left his domain spanning roughly 16,000km2.
He captured Bursa, a port city on the Marmara coast.
Orkhan I (726-761 H / 1326-1360 M)
Replaced his father; moved the capital from Qorah Hisyar to Bursa.
Expanded into Turkic-speaking territories, then to Nicaea (1331), Nicomedia (1337), Skutari (1338), and gained control of the Edremit gulf.
Established a formal military-political system, including the jānissaries (Inkisyariyah or Jenissari).
Created a Shadr Azham (the office of prime minister) and granted leadership roles to his brother Alauddin.
The imperial standard was red with a crescent; beneath the crescent rested a sword called Dzulfiqar (the sword of Ali ibn Abi Talib).
Orkhan focused on administrative centralization, military reform, mosque-building, and the establishment of scholarly academies.
Murad I (761-791 H / 1360-1388 M)
Expanded Ottoman control into both Asia Minor and Europe; Adrianople (Edirne) became the new capital.
Won key victories in Macedonia, Sofia (the Bulgarian capital), and northern Greece.
European powers grew anxious; Christian Balkan rulers sought Pope Urban V’s involvement to expel Muslims.
Murad I faced attacks from the Serbian king (referred to as “Raja Qurok V of Serbia”) near Adrianople and continued to push into Europe (e.g., Somakov, Sopia (Sofia), Saloniki).
He died as a martyr at approximately age 65 in 791 H; his death precipitated continued Ottoman expansion under his successors.
Significance: spread of Islam in the Balkans and increasing recognition of Ottoman sovereignty in Europe.
Bayezid I (791-805 H / 1389-1402 M)
Succeeded Murad I and aggressively pursued expansion into Christian Anatolia.
Earned the epithet “Yaldram” (The Lightning) for his rapid conquests across the Balkans and Anatolia.
His bold moves alarmed Pope Boniface VIII, who launched a Crusade against him.
Constantinople nearly fell under his watch, but Timur (Timur Lenk) intervened, presenting a new external threat to the Ottoman state.
Causes of Timur–Bayezid conflict include:
Iraqi rulers who were conquered by Timur sought Bayezid’s protection.
Christian kingdoms provoked Timur to challenge Bayezid.
Mutual misunderstandings and exchange of hostile communications.
Competing imperial ambitions from both sides.
Bayezid’s defeat by Timur at the Ankara campaign marked a major setback, forcing the empire to endure a period of crisis before rising again.
Selim I (1512-1520 M / 918-926 H)
Brought significant military and administrative reforms; prepared the empire for its peak under Suleiman.
Noted for his literary pursuits; wrote poetry in Turkish and Persian under the name Mahlas Selimi.
Famous verse: “A carpet large enough for two saints cannot contain the world for two kings.”
Consolidated authority and reorganized military power to support future expansion.
Suleiman I (Sulaiman al-Qanuni) (927-974 H / 1520-1566 M)
Known as the Magnificent (the Great) and the Lawgiver (al-Qanuni) for codifying Ottoman law.
The governing code is known as Kanun-i Osmani (Qanun Osman) or the Mulṭaqin al-Abḥār (variously translated as “Code of the Sea of Laws”) in some sources; it governed for over three centuries.
As a legislator-king, he integrated civil and criminal laws and reformed the government to support stability and growth.
Administration and culture flourished under his rule:
Built a monumental law system, and restructured provincial governance by appointing capable governors.
Istanbul became a cultural and artistic hub; the city hosted visual arts, music, writing, and philosophy.
Patronage of education and architecture flourished; he founded the Suleiman Mosque and fostered a thriving cultural scene.
Architectural and urban development reached remarkable scale: 81mosques (jaˉmıˉ),52smaller mosques,55madrasas,7takiyyahs,7bridges,33palaces,18caravanserais,5museums,33public baths.
Territorial reach under Suleiman extended to the holy cities of Islam (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem) and to Damascus and Baghdad; influence also spread across the Balkans and much of North Africa.
Suleiman died on 5 September 1566 CE (935 H) and was mourned as the peak of Ottoman political power and cultural flowering.
C. Flourishing of Islamic Civilization under the Ottoman Era