European Expansion (15th-16th Centuries)

European Expansion (15th-16th Centuries)

The Age of Exploration

The European expansion, also known as the Age of Exploration or the Age of Discovery, occurred primarily from the 15th to the 16th centuries. This era saw the rise of four major colonial empires: Spain, England, France, and Portugal. These empires were characterized by a monarchical political system. Colonial empires consist of a métropole (the mother country) and its colonies.

Types of Colonies

• Trading Posts (Comptoirs Commerciaux): These were establishments primarily focused on trade and economic activities.
• Settlement Colonies (Colonies de Peuplement): In these colonies, European peasants and women were sent to populate the new territories.

Goods & Trade

Europeans sought various products from Asia and Africa, including silk, spices (such as cloves, pepper, and salt), and metals like gold and silver. This trade primarily occurred between the West (Europe) and the East (Asia).

However, Asian trade routes were difficult to navigate due to Arab merchants controlling routes east of the Mediterranean Sea and around the Black Sea, particularly in Constantinople, the only city connecting Europe and Asia. To bypass these established routes, Europeans explored alternate paths, such as navigating the African coast (though perilous) and venturing westward into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Triangular Trade

The triangular trade system involved three continents: Africa, Europe, and the Americas, with each region playing a distinct role.

• Americas to Europe: Raw materials such as sugar, cocoa, and tobacco.
• Europe to Africa: Manufactured goods like fabrics, firearms, and alcohol.
• Africa to the Americas: Enslaved people who provided labor.

This system is often referred to as a "World Economy" (Économie-Monde), benefitting Europe significantly. European merchants and colonizers asserted their authority, compelling colonies to send raw materials to the European métropole. Colonies were prohibited from competing with the métropole, restricted from selling their goods freely, and prevented from transforming raw materials into finished products.

Motivations Behind Expansion

• Economic Motivations: The desire to discover new trade routes, resources, and territories.
• Political Motivations: The ambition to possess new territories, expand the power of kingdoms, and strengthen military capabilities.
• Religious Motivations: The goal of spreading Christianity through evangelization.

Fall of Constantinople

The Ottoman Turks seized Constantinople/Istanbul, thereby controlling trade between Europe and Asia and imposing taxes that increased the cost of goods.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

The Treaty of Tordesillas, established in 1494, was a north-south imaginary line drawn in the Atlantic Ocean, dividing the New World between Spain (west) and Portugal (east).

Explorers and Discoveries

• Christopher Columbus (Colomb): In 1492, he landed in America.
• John Cabot (Caboto): In 1497, he reached Newfoundland, believing it to be China and Japan.
• Vasco da Gama (Gama): Between 1497 and 1499, he sailed to India by navigating around Africa's southern coast.
• Pedro Álvares Cabral (Cabral): In 1500, he explored the coasts of Brazil.
• Ferdinand Magellan (Magellan): From 1519 to 1522, his expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the world, passing through the southern tip of America.
• Jacques Cartier (Cartier): In 1534, he sought a passage to Asia and explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

Indigenous Populations

Characteristics

Indigenous populations spoke various dialects. Some were nomadic, subsisting on hunting, fishing, and gathering, while others were sedentary and practiced agriculture.

Civilizations

• Aztecs: Cultivated corn, cocoa, tomatoes, beans, potatoes, and peanuts and practiced polytheism.
• Mayans: Were polytheistic.
• Incas: Worshipped the Sun and other deities, with agriculture as their primary economic activity and the raising of llamas and alpacas for wool and skin.
• Tenochtitlan: The capital of the Aztec empire, present day Mexico City.

Differences between Indigenous and European Societies

Impact on Indigenous Populations

Approximately 90% of the indigenous population died due to diseases (such as measles, smallpox, influenza, tuberculosis, and plague), violence, and harsh living conditions imposed by Europeans, including forced labor, exhaustion, and massacres. Spanish conquistadors, such as Hernán Cortés, employed violence to seize valuable resources and assert authority over the indigenous peoples.

Advancements in Navigation

During the Middle Ages, advancements in astronomy allowed navigators to better understand the movements of celestial bodies, aiding in navigation at sea. This led to the development of maritime technologies and navigational instruments.

Technological Advancements

• Caravel: A stable, fast, and easily maneuverable sailing ship, capable of withstanding strong waves; a Portuguese invention.
• Compass: A Chinese invention indicating north.
• Astrolabe: An invention by the Greeks and Arabs, used to measure the height of celestial bodies above the horizon and calculate latitude (a ship's position relative to the equator).
• Portulan: A nautical chart indicating the position of ports and coastal outlines.
• Log: Used to estimate a ship's speed.