GGS 101 Final Exam Notes:

Meteorology, History of Cartography, Europe:

Climate and Clouds:

Climate Regions are classified by

• Latitude

• Altitude

Koppen-Geiger - System of Climate Classification

• 5 Main Groups

  • A - Tropical

  • B - Dry

  • C - Temperate

  • D - Continental

  • E - Polar

• Has sub groups that define the climate of these areas more specifically

• DC Area is in the Cfa

• Problems with Koppen-Geiger

  • Scare records, short term

  • Weather / Climate change

Clouds

• Cumulus - Low Altitude (Base 6,500 feet)

  • Most Common

• Cumulonimbus - Low Altitude (Base 6,500 feet)

  • Massive collection of Cumulus

  • Top can reach as high as 63,000 feet

  • Can form individually or a long stretching line

  • Strong Storms, Lightning, Hail, Heavy rain

  • Associated with Cold fronts

• Stratus - Low Altitude (Base 6,500 feet)

  • Associated with Warm fronts

• Cirrus - High Altitude (Base around 20,000 feet)

  • Feathery, wispy

History of Cartography

Eratosthenes

• Mathematician, Philosopher, Geographer, Astronomer, and a lot more

• From Egypt

• Worked at the Library of Alexandria

• His measurements on the Earths’ circumference were based on certain facts

  • The distance between cities of Alexandria and Syene is 500 miles

  • Alexandria and Syene is on a north-south line

  • Syene is on the extreme edge of the tropic of cancer

  • 500 × 50 = 25,000 miles is what he came up with for the circumference of the Earth

  • Only within 250 miles of the actual answer, very close

Longitude and Latitude on a Globe

• Latitude - Horizonal bands

• Longitude - Vertical bands passing through both poles

John Harrison

• Wants to build a marine chronometer to calculate the longitude of the ship

• His thought process

  • Earth = 360 degrees

  • 24 hours in a day, 360 degrees/24 hours in a day = 15

  • Thus, for every 15 degrees that one travels east or west, the local time moves one hour

    • Knowing the local times of two places on Earth allows us to calculate how far apart those places are in longitude east or west

Pre-Historic Cartography

• Purpose

  • Communicating spatial information

• Early discovery

  • Found in Turkey in 1963, dating back to 6200 BC

  • Art rendering a erupting volcano near buildings

• Map bases (material)

  • Stick maps in martial islands, via seashells for island and directional sticks for ocean currents

  • Clay tablets in area around Tigris and Euphrates rivers (mesopotanmia). Created over 3k yrs ago

  • Animal skins, map of western Africa and eastern south America (1513). Seal skin was used too.

Claudius Ptolemy

• Wrote book called “Geography” - first real instructions on map makings

• Nothing compares to it

• Influenced adventures such as Christopher Columbus to explore a spherical world

Roman Cartography

• Inherited skills from the Greeks

• Produced maps on cloth, stone, and bronze

• Primary surveying instrument - The Groma

The Groma

• Consisted of a long staff or pole with 4 bladed propeller shaped piece all at right angles balanced at the top. Balancing was achieved by equal weights tied and suspended from the tips of the blade

• Greatly improved geographic accuracy

• Used for establishing straight lines and angles

Impressionistic Maps of the Middle Ages

• T-O Map was the predominate shape (Orbis Terrarum)

  • The name comes from the structure of the map… A T inside an O

  • Reflected the power of the church at the time

  • Details about the T-O map

    • East was always at the top because the church says that heaven is East

    • Each quadrant has 1 of 3 known continents: Asia (Top), Europe (Bottom left) , Africa (Bottom right)

    • The outer circle with everything inside it represents the ocean

    • The “T” represents the waterways that separates the continents (Don river between EU and Asian, The Nile between Asia and Africa, and The Mediterranean between Europe and Africa)

    • Jerusalem was always at the center

The Invention of the Atlas

• Mid 1500s, Age of Discovery slowly beginning

  • In the Mid 1500s… Exploration exploded, rise of world economies, turmoil through Europe, routes must be planned carefully

• Aegidius Hooftman

  • Organization of maps was always a problem, and he needed a solution

• Abraham Ortelius

  • Not an academic, but was regarded as a scholar

  • Cartographer and collector

  • Intrigued by Hooftmans problem

  • He would obtain the best map of every area around in the best quality and put them together in a single book. He did not create the maps.

  • Planned the book to have 30 maps and consulted with Gerard Mercator

• Ortelius “Theatrum Orbis Terrarum” (First Atlas)

  • Never claimed the maps to be his creation

  • Included were maps of:

    • Germany

    • France

    • Netherlands

    • Italy

    • etc.

  • First modern Atlas was published in 1570, compiled and edited by Abraham Ortelius

  • Called “Theatrum Orbis Terrarum”

• Gerard Mercator

  • Friend of Ortelius

  • Was trying to solve the problem of plotting a course using a straight line on a flat map

  • “The Mercador Projection”

    • Perfect for the purpose

    • Misused a lot

    • The 2D map we are all used to

    • Further from the equator, the more inaccurate the size and results in misconceptions like Greenland bigger than it is.

  • First to use “South and North America”

  • First to make a map with Asia and NA not joined

  • Used Italics in European maps for the first time

  • Published his own book with 51 maps

  • Created the name “Atlas” for his book

Components to a Complete Map

Map Elements:

• Title

  • Contains date

• Legend/Key

• Scale

  • Give us an idea of how large a graphic element is

• North Arrow

  • North isn’t always at the top of every map

• Source Statement

  • Give credit

• Graphic Element

Design Variable

• Color

  • What’s the best colors and shades

• Linework

  • What types of lines

• Font

• Symbology

• Texture

  • Represent information

3 Ways to Represent Scale on a Map

1. Representative Fraction (FR)

   • ie: 1:10,000

   • 1:24,000

   • with this one^^, it means 1 inch equals 24,000 inches in real life

2. Verbal Statement “1 inch equals 16 miles’

3. Visual Bar Scale - Often 3 visual bars on a map (Miles, feet, kilometers)

Missed Terms:

Names:

Alexander von Humbolt contributions

• Humboldt was one of the first people to propose that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean were once joined (South America and Africa in particular)

Mark Jefferson - Every country has a Primate City ( a city that dominates in economics, social factors and in politics)

James Watt

• A Scottish engineer who created the steam engine that worked faster and more efficiently than earlier engines, this man continued improving the engine, inventing a new type of governor to control steam pressure and attaching a flywheel.

Alfred Weber

• LEAST COST THEORY to predict the locational decisions made by industrial operations. -agglomeration vs degolomerate forces

Waldo Tobler's 1st Law of Geography - "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."

Terms:

Polders - areas in the Netherlands drained of sea water & now used for farmland

Primate city - A countries largest city (usually but not always the capital)

Ancona Line - Northern and Southern Italy are divided by this invisible line extending from Rome to the Adriatic coast at Ancona. core= industrial, contains milan, skilled labor. periphery= stagnant south, intensive agriculture

Länder - the states in Germany

Coriolis Effect - A deflective force rising from rotation on axis, responsible for high and low pressure system rotations

Shatter Belt - An area of instability between regions with opposing political and cultural values.

Fjord - A long, narrow inlet of the sea with steep sides. NORWAY

Mercantilism - An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought

Supranationalism - Term applied to associations created by three or more states for their mutual benefit and achievement of shared objectives

Irredentism - A policy of cultural extension and potential political expansion by a state aimed at a community of its nationals living in a neighboring state.

Cartogram - A map that distorts to convey a geographical message

Nation-State - country whos population posses a substantial degree of cultural homogenity and union. political unit

Agglomeration - industry locates to take advantage of an established market. not necessarily near rich natural resources. Alfred Weber

Balkans - northern tip of Adriatic sea, Northwest corner of the black sea (odesa), ans southern tip of greek mainland, forms a triangle

Break-of-Bulk - location along a transport route where goods must be transferred from one carrier to another. In a port, cargoes of ships are unloaded and put on trains and trucks for inland distribution

NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries.

Benelux - Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg

Core periphery concept - The contrasting spatial characteristics of and linkages between the have (core) and the have not (periphery) components of national, regional, or global system (im fs not remembering this bs)

Karst topography - A type of landscape in rainy regions where there is limestone near the surface, characterized by caverns, sinkholes, and valleys

Devolutionary Forces - Economic, ethnocultural, spatial.

Africa and SW Asia Notes:

Atlas Mountains - Mountains begin at Morocco and stretch NE. Orographic effects strip rainfall from Algeria.

Maghreb - A region in Northwestern Africa that includes portions of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia

Continental Shelf - Rather than a shoreline and beach, shelves are a sudden drop to ocean depths. Africa has the narrowest shelf.

The Golan Heights - located with Jordan River and Sea of Galilee, main water sources for Israel. Stolen from Syria after battle.

Sinai Peninsula - A piece of land that is currently a part of Egypt but was a UN buffer zone from 1956-1966 and a part of Israel from 1967-1979

Demographic Transition Model - Based on a graph showing birth rates and death rates, countries are in one of 5 Stages

• Stage 1 = High Death / High Birth

• Stage 2 = Death rate falls rapidly / High Birth

• Stage 3 = Death rate falls slowly / Birth rate falls

• Stage 4 = Low Birth rate / Low Death rate (USA is here)

• Stage 5 Low death rate is now higher than very low Birth rate. Declining population (Japan is here)

Aswan High Dam - Dam across the Nile River in Egypt. Created ARTIFICIAL Lake Nassar and helps to create Zmore farmland. Controls flooding along the Nile River.

Darfur - Fur are the ethnic Sudan Africans, south Darfur converted to Islam. Lived among Arab herders and were blamed by Arabs for conspiring against Khartoum. Thousands have died because of this conflict.

Rift valley - Formed when huge parallel cracks appear in Earths crust; area between faults sinks or is pushed down forming linear valleys

Theocentric - God is the center of worship

Plateaus and Escarpment - Plateaus are areas of high grown level and flat, Escarpment are cliffs or steep slopes often marks the edge of a plateau

Islamic Taliban Movement - Controlled 90% of Afghanistan and Kubal, The northern Alliance and US forces successfully remove the taliban power in Fall of 2001

Iran Mountains:

• Elburz and Zangros - Zagros mountains to the west of Iran, Elburz to the north (highest peak in Iran elburz)

Iran Deserts:

• Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut

  • Kavir major desert in North Iran

  • Lut major desert in South Iran

Bekaa Valley - Area of Lebanon with climate perfect for agriculture. Valley thrives because of the Lebanon mountains (West) and Anti-Lebanon mountains (East)

Hamas vs Hezbollah vs Fatah

• Hamas - Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement, Palestinian Sunni Muslim Militant group, Labeled by many as a terrorist group, Stronghold in the Gaza Strip.

• Hezbollah - Shi'a Muslim political and paramilitant group, considered terrorist group, stronghold in southern Lebanon

• Fatah - Palestinian national liberation movement, strong hold is in the West Bank. Chairman Mahmoud Abbs, considered a center left in politics

Suez Canal - A canal in Egypt linking the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. It was a vital trade route in the British Empire during imperialism, and continues to link North Africa and Europe to Asia today.

Epidemic and Pandemic - Epidemic is sudden outbreak at local, regional scale. Ex: African Sleeping Sickness. Pandemic is worldwide spread, Ex: COVID

Hindu Kush - Mountain range from central Afghanistan to northern Pakistan.

The Aral Sea - A body of water, located across Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the aral sea has dried up (shrinking), locally grown food now unsafe, drinking water polluted, high infant mortality rate and cancer

The Arab Spring - Started in Tunisia, a bunch of public protests/strikes/rebellions in the arab countries that want fundamental government and economic reforms. Only successful Arab uprising

Polisario Front - The Polisario Front is composed largely of the indigenous nomadic inhabitants of the Western Sahara region, the Saharawis.

Atatürk Mustafa Kemal - President of Newly formed Turkish Republic. He had an aim of building a republican and secular nation-state. He made primary education free and compulsory, opening thousands of new schools all over the country.

Bosporus and Dardanelles - The dividing line between Europe and Asia. Link up between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Dardanelles is the entrance to the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus is the other side leading you to the Black Sea

Sahara / Kalahari / Namib

• Sahara - Northern Africa

• Kalahari - Southern Africa minus left side of south africa

• Namib - Left side of Southern Africa

South America Notes:

Altitudinal Zonation:

• Tierra Caliente (Hot Land) - Lowest, Banana, Cocoa, Sugar, and Rice are grown here

• Tierra Templada (Temperate Land) - Coffee, Corn, Sugar, and Vegetables

• Tierra Fria (Cold Land) - Corn, Wheat, Barley, Potatoes, and Dairying. Ends at Tree line

• Tierra Helada (Frost Land) - Livestock, Grazing, No croplands. Ends at Snow line

• Tierra Nevada (Snow Land) - No economic activity

Snow and Tree Line - Snow Line is the elevation point where all precipitation is only snow. Tree Line is when you see an abrupt stop where forests end beyond it, trees cannot survive due to harsh climate conditions

Agricultural Systems: Haciendas vs Plantations

Hacienda

• Spanish Origin

• Underutilized land that is mostly for status rather then economical gain

• Some were given as a reward

Plantation

• Northern Europe Origin

• Located in humid tropical coastal lowlands

• Produced solely for exports and profit

• Capital, Skill, and Tech are imported for a plantation to function

• Factories are not in the field like how Hacienda operates, rather its located somewhere else

4 Regions of South America

1. Caribbean North - Columbia, Venezuela (not talked about but Guyana, Suriname, French Guinea)

2. Andean West - Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador

3. Brazil - Brazil

4. Southern Cone - Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay

Caribbean North - Colombia

• Capital is Bogota, also known as “the Great Hispanic Culture Headquarters”

• Population - 49 million, 58% Mestizo, 20% White

• Colombia Militant Left Wing Groups

  • FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia)

    • Largest

    • Communists

    • Began war to overthrow Colombia in 1964, lasted until 2017

  • ELN (National Liberation Army)

    • Smaller than FARC

    • Still active today (1964-now)

• Colombia Militant Right Wing Groups

  • AUC (United Self defense forces of Colombia)

    • Originally created by farmers to protect their farms from left wing resurgent’s, it grew into a militant group with a political agenda

• Colombia’s Drug Cartel had their foot in everyone’s door (Government, FARC/ELND, and AUC). That is until Alvaro Uribe steps up

• Alvaro Uribe

  • President 2002-2010

  • War against drugs, guerillas and paramilitary death squads

  • Gained US support, its 3rd largest Aid after Israel and Egypt

  • Pushed Cartel to Mexico

The Land: Colombia

• Temperate to Tropical enviroenemtn allows for diverse agriculture

• Large Reserve of Oil and Natural Gas

• The Llanos - Savanna like grasslands of the Orinoco River’s wide basin

• Llanos = East, near the interior of both Colombia and Venezuela diagonally across both countries

• Andes = West

• Llanos occupy 60% of land area of the country\

• The Andes in Colombia

  • The Andes splits into 3 branches when it enters Colombia

    • Western, Eastern, and Central

  • Populations are most dense at the basins of the Andes

The Economy: Colombia

• Oil, Coal, Gas, and 2nd largest exporter of Coffee (2nd to Brasil)

  • Coffee ranking may change due to production costs, low international prices, and recent worm infestations of coffee beans

• Only country in SA with both Pacific and Caribbean coasts

Caribbean North - Venezuela

• Capital is Caracas

• Population - 28 million, 67% Mestizo, 21% White

• Population is falling

• Core area of Venezuela is North and Northwest part of the country

• Maracaibo - Once disease infested, sparely populated coast; Now one of the lead Oil producers in SA

• Tepuis - Resistant sandstone-capped outcroppings with a flat top, plateau like appearance

  • Located in southeast Venezuela

  • Nearly 90 degree drop off

• Angel Falls - World’s Highest Waterfall

  • Found at a Tepuis

Hugo Chavez

• Reformed constitution to extend presidency from 5 years to 6 years, and allows president to seek immediate re-election

• Took over Judicial branch

• Died of Cancer in 2013, successor was Nicolas Maduro

Nicolas Maduro

• Continues to implement Chavez policy, re-elected May 2018

• Blames the right and the US for all problems

• In fueds with Jaun Guaido and the National Assembly for presidency but refuses to give up seat.

• USA CANADA UK and most of Latin America and Europe side with Guaido, China Russia side with Maduro

• Issues

  • Food running low

  • Maduro not solving anything

  • Hyperinflation

Andes West - Ecuador

• Population - 16.3 million, 40% Amerindian, 40% Mestizo, 15% White

• Uses USD (like Panama, and El Salvador)

• Capital is Quito

• Guayaquil is the largest city and commercial center

• Smallest of the 3 Andean core

• You can divide Ecuador into 3 parts

  1. Coastal belt (West)

  2. Andean Zone (Middle)

  3. “Oriente” (East)

• Ecuador has a wet coastal belt while Peru has a dry coastal belt that’s truly a desert

Andes West - Peru

• Population - 31 million, 45% Amerindian, 37% Mestizo

• Peru, like Ecuador is separated into 3 groups

  • The West - Contains the capital city Lima, 1/3 of the population, located in the desert coastal strip. A European-mestizo region. Uses nearby port Callao

    • Coast is dry because of the cold ocean front “Peruvian Current” or “Humboldt”

    • Cold current meets Ecuador’s warm current and pushes currents outward west

  • The Sierra - Isolated Andean core toward the east of Peru

    • Mostly Amerindian

  • The East - Mixed Mestizo/Amerindian, tropical, semi-tropical rainforest

    • City of Iquitos

• Politics

  • Shining Path - Insurgency group in Peru (a radical communist group; now in decline)

    • Left Wing

Andes West - Bolivia

• Population - 11.6 million, 55% Amerindian, 30% Mestizo, 15% White

• Poorest nation in South America

• Large deposits of Zinc, Copper, Natural Gas, and Oil

• Landlocked, because of a loss of a port to Chile. Landlocked countries tend to struggle more economically

• Capital is La Paz, also the highest capital in the world

• Lake Titicaca

  • Northwest of La Paz

  • Largest lake in South America

• Santa Cruz is the highest populated city in Bolivia

• Politics in Bolivia

  • Evo Morales - Elected 2005 as Socialist president

    • Elected by widest margin

    • Trouble with voter fraud on his 4th term and fled to Mexico

  • Janine Anez - Interim President, religious, and was anti-Morales

    • Formally 2nd vice and was raised above first vice because they fled

  • Luis Arce

    • Unity between all races

    • Current President

    • Far Left socialist

    • Restored relations with Iran, Venezuela, and Nicaragua

    • Mestizo east and Amerindian west fight, potential split?

Brazil - Brazil

• Population - 212 million, more than ½ of South America, 55% White, 38% White/Black, 6% Black, 1% Amerindian

• Black population came from slave trade

  • Last country to abolish slavery in the western hemisphere

• Economy

  • 8th largest economy in the world

  • #1 exporter of Coffee

  • Brasil has access to Iron ore, manganese, and other metals

  • 12th largest producer of oil

  • Lacks hydrocarbon fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas

  • The Itaipu Dam - 2nd largest dam in the world

• The Amazon River

  • Longest river system in the world

  • Water from the Andes flows toward the Amazon river making it such a wide river system

  • Manaus is a city located near another river called the Rio negro. This city is ALSO next to the Amazon but due to the benefits of the Rio Negro PH, temp, etc. leading to less mosquitos breeding, it leaves better living conditions.

  • You can see the black water of the Rio Negro not instantly mix with the brown water of the Amazon

• Urbanization

  • Historic Culture Hearth in the NW - Site of large sugar plantations

  • SE - Core areas anchored by Rio and Sao Paulo. Gold originally brought people to SE Brazil, but now the urbanization is the main pull

  • San Pauo - Largest Urban City in Brazil

  • Brasilia

    • Capital of Brazil

    • Built in 4 years

    • Purpose was to relocate the capital to a more central region of the country

• Climate

  • Constant cloud cover above the Amazon river makes it not as hot as people expect, being that its smack on the equator.

    • Even South West America is hotter

• Deforestation

  • Reasons

    • Clear land for cattle

    • Rapid logging of tropical woodlands

    • Need for space in growing populations

    • Sustain agricultural practice called slash and burn

  • Slash and Burn

    • Cutting down trees and burning the debris to clear land for planting crops

    • Cultivation of crops in recently cut/burned tropical forest cleanings are abandoned in favor of newly cleared nearby forest land

    • This causes biodiversity problems when animal populations that were once connected are now cut off.

Southern Cone - Chile

• Population - 18.2 million, 95% white,

• Capital is Santiago

• 90% of population is in Santiago

• The Atacama Desert

  • Driest place EARTH

  • Northern Chile

  • No rain has ever been recorded\

  • Cold Peruvian current doesn’t allow for much moisture.

  • Weather moves East to West, so the Andes blocks any kind of moisture

• Chile is the largest supplier of Copper in the WORLD

Southern Cone - Paraguay

• Population - 6.9 million, 95% mestizo, 5% other

• Truly Bilingual, Spanish and Guarani

• Landlocked (Only Bolivia and Paraguay are landlocked in S. America)

  • Rio Parana allows access to the Atlantic so unlike Bolivia, it has an in country way via water to export and import

• Politics

  • Francisco Solano Lopez

    • Military dictator

    • Declared war on Uruguay, Brazil, and Argentina

      • “War of Triple Alliance”

      • Over half the population killed in this war, nearly all men dead

      • Only reason Paraguay exists is as a buffer state (prevent conflict) between Argentina and Brazil

Southern Cone - Uruguay

• Population - 3.4 million, 97% White, 2% Mestizo, almost 0 Amerindian

• Capital is Montevideo

• Exports mostly Beef, Wool, and Textiles

• Tourism is important

• Located near the Pampa in the southern region of the country (very fertile land that runs very deep as well)

Southern Cone - Argentina

• Population 45.4 million, 96% White European, 4% Mestizo, small Amerindian in the Andes

• Has access to the Pampa (like Uruguay)

• Has more cattle than people (This is the case for Brazil and Uruguay as well)

• Iguazu Falls - Between Argentina and Brazil

  • Widest Waterfall in the world

Remaining Topics:

Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana)

• Guyana

  • Located Northeast in S. America, to the left of Suriname, and French Guiana. To the right of Venzuela

  • Language spoken is Guianese Creole, and English

• Suriname

  • Located Northeast in S. America in between Guyana and French Guiana

  • Language spoken is Dutch, and a more regional language being Sranan Tongo creole

• French Guiana

  • NOT considered a country

  • Located to the right of Suriname

  • Language spoken is French and Guianese Creole for the specific ethnic communities

Left Out Physical Geography:

• Patagonia

  • Encompasses southern South America

  • Comprises of southern section of the Andes

    • Argentina, Chili, Etc.

• Altiplano

  • Highest plateau on earth outside of Tibet

  • In southeastern Peru, and western Bolivia

Middle America Notes:

Sierra Maestra

• A mountain range in Cuba

Sierra Madra

• Northwest Mexico to Pacific Coastline

Greater Antilles:

1. Cuba
2. Jamaica
3. Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti)
4. Puerto Rico

Cuban Revolution

• Cuba (the largest island that makes up the Greater Antilles) became communist when Fidel Castro led a Guerilla Campaign against the government and then won by wearing them down with the help of Cuban citizens. In January of 1959, Fidel Castro and his army moved into Havana and assumed control. He then presumed to set up another tightly controlled dictatorship (i.e. communism).

Talking Points with Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic

• Some of the issues in the Caribbean region include: high crime rates (think Jamaica), immense deforestation and environmental issues (think Haiti and Brazil), economic issues and overall poor populations in some areas (think Haiti), and political issues (think Puerto Rico potentially becoming a U.S. state and being divided about that)

Middle America - Niceragua

• Sandinistas

  -Leftist group that overthrew the government in Nicaragua in 1979.
  -Civil war erupts in 1980s and stops in 1990s.

Middle America - Honduras

• Hurricane Mitch has set back Honduras and other Central American
  countries some 30 years in their development.

Middle America - Mexico

Maquiladoras and Ejidos

• Maquiladoras are modern industrial plants in Mexico's U.S. border zone. These foreign-owned factories assemble imported components and/or raw materials, and then export finished manufactures, mainly to the United States. Import duties are disappearing under NAFTA, bringing jobs to Mexico and the advantages of low wage rates to the foreign entrepreneurs. Maquiladoras account for about 1/5 of Mexico's industrial jobs and approximately 1/2 of its total exports. (pg. 214 & GL-8)
  
  Ejidos are Mexican farmlands redistributed to peasant communities after the Revolution of 1910-1917. The government holds title to the land, but user rights are parceled out to village communities and then to individuals for cultivation. Ejidos are an indigenous legacy, and most ejidos lie in central and southern Mexico where nativist social and agricultural traditions are strongest. (pg. 214 & GL-4)

Physical Landscape of Mexico

• Dry, desert conditions in the north and west. Wetter, more tropical in the south, southeast. Mountain ranges of note = Sierra Madre

• Yucatan Peninsula

  • Peninsula in southern Mexico

Politics in Mexico

• Independence in 1821

• First 50 years (average of one new ruler every year)

• Caudillo (military or political strongman; a figure sometimes seen as a patriot)

• Enrique Peña Nieto

  • Mexico's current president.

  • Election marks return to PRI rule

  • Biggest challenge: War on drugs

Middle America - Panama

Why a Canal?

• To shorten travel time between pacific and atlantic

How did Geography influence its design?

• Elevation differnces forced engineers to create a mechanism

Difference between French and American Effort

• French failed due to conditions of central america and disease. US succeeded because they controlled disease and learned from the French effort, along with newer tech.

Ecotourism

• Ecotourism is a form of tourism that involves visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively undisturbed natural areas. It is often intended as a low-impact and small-scale alternative to traditional commercial mass tourism. (Think of Brazil and their focus on wildlife.)
  
  Tourism is very important to the realm of Middle America, especially throughout the Greater and Lesser Antilles. However, using the example of Jamaica, tourism is definitely a double-edged sword. For example, Jamaica has few natural resources but they do have sun and beaches, and therefore it is an ideal spot for tourists. Jamaica, being a poorer country, will almost never see any of the money made from tourism though. Therefore, tourism is NOT effective because it eliminates interaction between the tourists and the rest of the island. In the end, the money ends up going to the resorts instead of to the island economy, which actually hurts the island in the long-run.
  
  Positives of tourism include: opportunity for potential economy boost IF tourism expands to areas outside of the resort bubble (if tourists interact with locals and buy products from locally-owned vendors)
  
  Negatives of tourism include: there is little interaction between tourists and the rest of the island (isolation) and it does NOT help economy as money goes to resorts

Introduction to Latin America Notes:

How do we Divide America culturally and physically>

• Culturally → A division can be made between Latin and Anglo America.
  
  Physically → We can divide America into North, Central, and South.

What’s the difference between Mesoamerica and Middle America

• Middle America: Mexico + Central America + the Caribbean
  
  Mesoamerica: Mexico + Central America (note: Mesoamerica is the culture hearth of Middle America)

Culture Hearth

• A culture heath is a source area from which new ideas radiated outward and whose population could expand and make significant material as well as intellectual progress. Essentially, it is a heartland, source area, innovation center; a place of origin of a major culture. (pg. 199 & GL-3)

Characteristics that define the realm of Latin America (both Middle and South America)

• 1. Location: Western Hemisphere
  2. Language: Strong Latin Influence
  3. Population: Predominantly Urban

Transculturation and Acculturation

• Acculturation is the cultural modification resulting from intercultural borrowing. In cultural geography, the term refers to the change that occurs in the culture of indigenous peoples when contact is made with a society that is technologically superior. (pg. GL-1)
  
  Transculturation is the cultural borrowing and two-way exchanges that occur when different cultures of approximately equal complexity and technological level come into close contact. (pg. GL-13)

North America Notes

What is environmental perception?

• How people perceive a place without actually going there, we get the ideas from television, movies, books etc.

What is push-pull factors and migration

• the idea that migration flows are simultaneously stimulated by conditions in source area, which tend to drive people away and by the perceived attractiveness of the destination

Rust and Sun Belts

• Sun belt is popular name given to the southern tier of the united states which is anchored by the mega states of california, texas and florida. Its warmer climate superior recreational opportunities, and amenities have been attracting large number of relocating people and activities since the 1960s; broader definitions of the sunbelt also include much of the western united states even colorado and coastal pacific northwest

• Rust belt is parts of the northeastern and midwestern US that are characterized by declining industry, aging factories, and a falling population. Steel-producing cities in Pennsylvania and Ohio are at its center.

Stages of Intraurban growth

• 1. Walking horse car era (1800-1890) 2. Electric street car (1890-1920) 3. Recreational automobile era (1920-1945) 4. Free way era (1945-present)

Joel Garreau’s “Nine Nations of North America”

Joel Garreau’s 1981 book, The Nine Nations of North America, proposes that the continent can be divided into nine culturally and economically distinct regions, or “nations,” which transcend traditional political boundaries. Each of these regions is defined by shared cultural traits, economic activities, historical development, and environmental factors. Below is an elaboration on each of these regions and the reasoning behind their names:

1. New England

• Region: Includes parts of the U.S. Northeast (like Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire) and parts of Canada.

• Characteristics: Strong Puritan roots, a history of industrialization, and a culture of education and civic engagement.

• Why the Name?: Reflects its early colonial history as the first region settled by English Puritans.

2. The Foundry

• Region: Encompasses the industrial heartland, including cities like Detroit, Pittsburgh, and parts of Ontario, Canada.

• Characteristics: Historically dominated by heavy industry, such as steel production and manufacturing.

• Why the Name?: Refers to its role as the industrial powerhouse of North America, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

3. Dixie

• Region: Covers the American South, including states like Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia.

• Characteristics: Known for its agrarian history, Civil War legacy, and cultural distinctiveness in terms of religion (Baptist dominance), music, and cuisine.

• Why the Name?: "Dixie" is a historical term for the Southern U.S., symbolizing its unique cultural and historical identity.

4. The Breadbasket

• Region: Includes the Midwest states such as Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska.

• Characteristics: A center of agricultural production, particularly grains and corn. The economy is heavily tied to farming and food processing.

• Why the Name?: Reflects the region’s pivotal role in feeding North America and its vast expanses of fertile farmland.

5. The Empty Quarter

• Region: Covers sparsely populated areas in the American West and Canada, including parts of Nevada, Utah, and the Rocky Mountains.

• Characteristics: Known for its rugged terrain, low population density, and resource extraction industries (mining, oil).

• Why the Name?: The name highlights its sparse population and vast open spaces, giving it the feel of a frontier.

6. Ecotopia

• Region: Encompasses the Pacific Northwest, including Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and parts of Northern California.

• Characteristics: A region focused on environmental sustainability, technological innovation, and progressive politics.

• Why the Name?: Combines “eco” (ecological) and “topia” (utopia) to reflect the region’s environmental consciousness and green living ethos.

7. MexAmerica

• Region: Covers the U.S.-Mexico border region, including Southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Northern Mexico.

• Characteristics: Defined by its unique blending of American and Mexican cultures, economies, and languages.

• Why the Name?: Highlights the fusion of cultural and economic ties between the U.S. and Mexico.

8. Quebec

• Region: Primarily the province of Quebec in Canada.

• Characteristics: Strongly defined by its French-speaking population, distinct cultural identity, and historical efforts for political autonomy.

• Why the Name?: Reflects the province’s unique linguistic and cultural heritage, separate from the rest of Canada.

9. The Islands

• Region: Includes Florida, the Caribbean, and parts of the U.S. Gulf Coast.

• Characteristics: A hub of tourism, international finance, and diverse immigrant populations from Latin America and the Caribbean.

• Why the Name?: Emphasizes the region’s geographic and cultural connections to the Caribbean islands.

Edge City

• Like tysons corner

• More jobs than beds

• a concentration of business, shopping, and entertainment outside a traditional downtown or central business district.

Megalopolis

• a very large, heavily populated city or urban complex.

3 stages of economic development in America

• 1. Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial Period (Before 1600s - 1700s)

  • -Economy Based on Subsistence and Trade: Indigenous peoples in North America engaged in subsistence farming, hunting, fishing, and gathering. They also participated in regional trade networks.

• 2. Industrialization and Expansion (Late 1700s - Early 1900s) Industrial Revolution

  • North America saw rapid industrialization, particularly in the U.S. and parts of Canada.

• 3. Post Industrialization (Mid-1900s - Present)

  • Service and Technology Sectors: The focus shifted from manufacturing to services, finance, and technology.

Acculturation and Transculturation difference

• Acculturation is a one-way adoption of culture, while transculturation is a two-way exchange that results in something new

The Austral and Pacific Realms

Australia:

• Climate Similar to DC toward the eastern coast

• Climate is more dry toward the west and central regions

• The Outback (Interior) - Gold rush of 1851, New South Wales and Victoria

• Land and Environement

  • Australia lies in the middle of its own tectonic plate (Earthquakes are rare)

  • Mt. Kosciusko is the highest point in Australia

• Biogeography - The study of plant life and animal life

  • Wallace’s Line

    • Separates the ecozones of Asia and Wallacea identifying Australia’s zoo geography realm

    • A transitional zone between Asia and Australia

• Island Invaders

  • Exotic animals starting to appear in homes they don’t originate from

    • Marsupials Kangaroos

New Zealand:

• Consists of 2 islands North Island and South Island

  • 2 islands are separated by the Cook Strait

  • Topography - relatively low relief, higher earthquake frequency

• Native Population - The Maori arrived in 10th century

  • British prevailed with the Treaty of Waitangi - Treaty gave Britain sovereignty over New Zealand and Governor the right to govern

  • Nearly all Maori live on the North Island because the south is too mountainous

The Pacific Realm:

• Largest total area of all geographic realms

• Smallest land area of all the realms

• High fragmented realm

• A realm in Politico-Geographical transition

• Comprised of High island - Low island cultures

• 90% of Pacific realm lives in New Guinea