Psychology Exam Study Guide

Nature vs Nurture

Nativism (e.g., Gesell):

  • Proposes that behavior is genetically predetermined, highlighting biological influences on traits and characteristics.
  • Development unfolds naturally without significant environmental influence, asserting that innate structures guide growth and behavior.

Empiricism (e.g., Watson):

  • Argues that all behavior is learned entirely from environmental interactions, emphasizing the role of experience in shaping individuals.
  • Focuses on observable behavior and dismisses internal thought processes as essential elements of understanding behavior.

Interactionism:

  • Suggests development is a result of both genetic predispositions and environmental factors, indicating a more integrative approach.
  • Examples include language acquisition and psychological disorders like schizophrenia, illustrating the complexity of human development influenced by both nature and nurture.

Structuralism vs Behaviorism vs Cognitive Revolution

Structuralism (Wundt):

  • Focused on studying the mind through introspection under controlled experimental conditions, aiming to break down mental processes into their simplest elements.
  • Emphasized rigorous scientific methods to explore consciousness and human experience.

Behaviorism (Watson):

  • Disregarded introspection; emphasized only observable behavior as a valid subject of study, promoting the idea that psychology should be based on observable and measurable phenomena.
  • Sought to understand how conditioning and external stimuli affect behavior.

Cognitive Revolution:

  • Shifted focus to internal mental processes, fueled by advancements in computer science, leading to the view of the human mind as an information processor.
  • Bridged the gap between behavioral psychology and understanding cognitive functions, such as memory and decision-making.

Scientific vs Common-Sense Psychology

  • Psychology aims to build systematic and testable knowledge, contrasting with intuition-based everyday assumptions, which often lack empirical support.
  • Scientific psychology employs rigorous methodologies, whereas common-sense psychology relies on cultural narratives and anecdotal evidence.

Process vs Person Approach

Process Approach:

  • Engages in experimental and lab-based studies, often utilizing non-human subjects (e.g., physiological psychology) for controlled assessments.
  • Prioritizes quantitative data to test hypotheses in a systematic manner.

Person Approach:

  • Observes field-based and qualitative research using human participants (e.g., social and developmental psychology), focusing on individual experiences and contexts.
  • Emphasizes understanding behavior in real-world situations, enhancing ecological validity.

Key Theories and Empirical Findings

Biological Psychology

CNS & PNS:

  • Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord; Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes the nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
  • CNs processes sensory information and coordinates response mechanisms.

Endocrine System:

  • Hormones like cortisol and adrenaline significantly affect emotions and stress responses; for instance, cortisol is linked to stress regulation, while adrenaline prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses.

Neuroplasticity:

  • The brain's ability to adapt and change in response to experience over time, with implications for recovery from injuries and the learning process.

Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):

  • Involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response to produce a conditioned response, famously demonstrated through Pavlov's dogs.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner):

  • Focuses on how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviors, with implications for education and behavior modification strategies.

Observational Learning (Bandura):

  • Learning that occurs through watching and imitating others, illustrated by the Bobo doll study, which examined aggression and modeled behavior in children.

Cognitive Psychology

  • Examines internal processes like memory, perception, attention, and problem-solving, highlighting the complexity of thought processes and decision-making.
  • Influenced by the analogy of humans as 'information processors' similar to computer models, leading to developments in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Sensation and Perception

Sensation:

  • Refers to the raw sensory data gathered by our senses, which provides the foundation for perception.

Perception:

  • Involves the brain's interpretation of sensory information to form coherent experiences.

Examples of sensation vs perception:

  • Pitch relates to frequency; loudness relates to amplitude, illustrating how different physical properties influence sensory experience.

Developmental & Social Psychology

Developmental Psychology:

  • Focuses on lifespan development, with notable theorists including Freud and Piaget, exploring the psychological growth and changes throughout life stages.

Social Psychology:

  • Studies the influence that others have on individual behavior, including topics like conformity, social cognition, and prejudice, aiming to understand group dynamics and social interactions.

Individual Differences & Mental Health

  • Examines areas like personality, intelligence, and psychological disorders (e.g., schizophrenia and depression), exploring both genetic and environmental factors.
  • Various approaches are applied in the explanation and treatment of these issues, including cognitive and biological perspectives, underscoring the interplay between nature and nurture in mental health.