AP Psych
### Neuroscience
#### Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; processes and sends out information.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
#### Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System
- Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements (e.g., moving your hand).
- Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heartbeat).
- Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates "fight or flight" response.
- Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy.
#### Neuron Structure
- Dendrites: Receive signals.
- Axon: Transmits signals.
- Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and maintains the neuron.
- Synaptic Gap: Space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
#### Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in muscle action and memory.
- Dopamine: Linked to pleasure and motor control.
- Serotonin: Regulates mood and sleep.
- GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduces anxiety.
- Endorphins: Natural painkillers.
#### Brain Parts
- Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.
- Amygdala: Emotion regulation, especially fear and aggression.
- Hippocampus: Memory formation.
- Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, and body temperature.
- Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the brain.
- Corpus Callosum: Connects the brain's two hemispheres.
- Medulla: Controls heart rate and breathing.
- Reticular Formation: Regulates alertness and attention.
#### Brain Lobes
- Frontal Lobe: Decision-making, planning, and motor control.
- Parietal Lobe: Sensory information processing.
- Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing.
- Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.
#### Other Concepts
- Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize.
- All-or-None Response: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.
- Myelin Sheath: Insulates axons, speeds up neural transmission.
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### Learning
#### Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Naturally triggers a response.
- UCR (Unconditioned Response): Natural reaction to UCS.
- CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response after conditioning.
- CR (Conditioned Response): Learned response to CS.
- Generalization: Responding similarly to similar stimuli.
- Discrimination: Differentiating between stimuli.
- Extinction: Reduction of the conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.
#### Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
- Punishment: Decreasing behavior by adding (positive punishment) or removing (negative punishment) stimuli.
- Schedules of Reinforcement:
- Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a varying number of responses.
- Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time.
- Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying times.
#### Observational Learning (Bandura)
- Learning by observing others (e.g., Bobo Doll Experiment).
#### Latent Learning
- Learning that is not immediately expressed until needed.
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### Sensation & Perception
#### Sensation Principles
- Weber’s Law: The just noticeable difference is proportional to the stimulus intensity.
- Difference Threshold: Minimum difference needed to detect a change 50% of the time.
- Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to constant stimuli.
#### Vision
- Retina: Contains rods (dim light) and cones (color vision).
- Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to the brain.
- Trichromatic Theory: Color perception based on red, green, and blue cones.
- Opponent-Process Theory: Colors are perceived in opposing pairs (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow).
#### Audition
- Place Theory: Different sound frequencies stimulate specific locations on the cochlea.
- Frequency Theory: The rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone.
#### Balance
- Vestibular System: Maintains balance; includes semicircular canals. Priming
Exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, often unconsciously.
Perceptual Principles
Constancy: The ability to recognize objects as unchanging (constant) even as their appearance changes (e.g., size, shape, and color constancy).
Gestalt Principles: Rules the brain uses to organize sensory information into meaningful wholes, including:
Proximity: Objects close together are grouped together.
Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.
Continuity: Lines and patterns are perceived as continuing in space.
Closure: The mind fills in gaps to perceive a whole object.
Figure-ground: Differentiation of objects from their background.
Depth Perception Cues:
Binocular: Cues requiring both eyes, such as retinal disparity (different images from each eye) and convergence (eye muscles adjusting focus).
Monocular: Cues needing one eye, like relative size, interposition, texture gradient, and linear perspective.
Thinking
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Beliefs about an outcome influence behavior, making the outcome more likely.
Belief Perseverance: Sticking to initial beliefs even when faced with contrary evidence.
Heuristic: Mental shortcuts used for decision-making.
Availability Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype.
Prototype: A mental image of the most typical example of a concept.
Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a problem.
Mental Set: Tendency to approach problems in the same way, based on past experiences.
Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking:
Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple solutions to a problem.
Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down to the single best solution.
Functional Fixedness: Inability to see an object used in a way other than its typical purpose.
Gambler's Fallacy: Belief that past events affect probabilities of independent future events (e.g., "I'm due for a win!").
Memory
Short-term Memory: Temporary storage for information being processed.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories.
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.
Memory Decay: Fading of memory over time.
Repression: Unconscious blocking of distressing memories.
Lack of Encoding: Failure to transfer information into long-term memory.
Semantic Encoding: Processing meaning rather than superficial details.
Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and actions.
Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts the recall of old information.
State-Dependent Memory: Recall is better in the same physical or emotional state as when the memory was encoded.
Effortful Processing: Deliberate focus and effort to encode information.
Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform actions in the future.
Echoic Memory: Brief sensory memory for auditory information.
Semantic Memory: Memory for facts and knowledge.
Deep vs. Shallow Processing: Deep (meaning-based) processing leads to better recall than shallow (surface-level) processing.
Spacing Effect: Distributing learning over time improves retention.
Misinformation Effect: Memory distortion from misleading post-event information.
Serial Position Effect: Better recall for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list.
Constructive Memory: Memory influenced by imagination, expectations, or misinformation.
Intelligence
General Intelligence (g): A single factor underlying all cognitive abilities.
Achievement Test: Measures knowledge and skills learned.
Aptitude Test: Measures potential for future learning.
Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group.
Validity: The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
Construct Validity: Whether a test accurately assesses the concept.
Predictive Validity: How well a test predicts future performance.
Reliability: Consistency of test results.
The rest will be continued in another response!
Brain and Neuroscience
Amygdala: Involved in emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, balance, and procedural memory.
Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
Independent and Dependent Variables in Experiments:
Independent Variable: The factor manipulated by the experimenter.
Dependent Variable: The factor being measured.
Operational Definitions: Specific definitions for variables to ensure clarity and replication.
Research Methodologies:
Correlational Study: Examines the relationship between two variables.
Experiment: Tests causation by manipulating an independent variable.
Meta-analysis: Combines results from multiple studies to find trends.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment.
Case Study: In-depth analysis of an individual or group.
Statistical Concepts:
Standard Deviation: Measure of data dispersion.
Correlation Coefficient: Indicates the strength and direction of a relationship (-1 to +1).
Mean, Median, Mode: Measures of central tendency.
Bimodal Distribution: A distribution with two peaks.
Normal Distribution: A bell-shaped curve where 68%, 95%, and 99.7% of data fall within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations.
Skewed Distribution: Data is asymmetrical, with a tail on one side.
Random Selection: Randomly choosing participants to reduce bias.
Confounding Variables: Variables that might influence results besides the independent variable.
Replication: Repeating a study to confirm findings.
Generalization: Extending findings to broader populations.
Ethical Guidelines: Standards for conducting research responsibly.
Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek evidence supporting one’s beliefs.
Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship where none exists.
Learning and Development
Learning: A lasting change in behavior due to experience.
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Operant Conditioning: Behavior is influenced by consequences.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase behavior.
Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.
Classical Conditioning: Associating two stimuli to elicit a response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response to UCS.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.
Cognitive Map: Mental representation of the environment.
Latent Learning: Learning that isn’t apparent until a reward is present.
Shaping: Gradually reinforcing behaviors toward a desired outcome.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns of delivering reinforcements.
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time.
Variable Interval: Reinforcement after variable time intervals.
Habituation: Decreasing response to repeated stimuli.
Development
Piaget's Concept of Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains constant despite shape changes.
Scaffolding: Support to help a learner achieve a task.
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development: Eight stages, each with a specific conflict (e.g., Generativity vs. Stagnation).
Attachment Styles: Secure and insecure attachments based on early relationships.
Piaget's Cognitive Processes:
Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.
Accommodation: Changing schemas to fit new information.
Schema: A mental framework for organizing information.
Theory of Mind: Understanding others have different perspectives.
Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing from another’s viewpoint.
Object Permanence: Knowing objects exist even when unseen.
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Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human development.
Psychological Perspectives and Key Figures
Behavioral Perspective: Focuses on observable behavior and its environmental determinants.
Watson, Skinner, Pavlov: Pioneers in behaviorism; emphasized learning through conditioning.
Cognitive Perspective: Focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and decision-making.
Piaget: Studied cognitive development in children.
Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.
Evolutionary Perspective: Examines behavior in terms of its adaptive value for survival.
Darwin: Proposed natural selection as a mechanism of evolution.
Neuroscience Perspective: Studies the biological basis of behavior and mental processes.
Psychodynamic Perspective: Focuses on unconscious motives and conflicts.
Freud: Founder of psychoanalysis; emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind.
Research and Statistics
Types of Research:
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment.
Case Study: In-depth study of a single individual or group.
Correlational Study: Measures the relationship between two variables.
Experiment: Tests causal relationships by manipulating variables.
Survey: Collects self-reported data from participants.
Replication: Repeating studies to confirm findings.
Operational Definitions: Clear definitions of variables to ensure consistency.
Overconfidence: Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge.
Generalization: Applying findings from a study to a larger population.
Random Assignment vs. Random Selection:
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to groups by chance.
Random Selection: Randomly choosing participants from a population.
Double-Blind Experiment: Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.
Statistical Correlation: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between variables (range: -1 to +1).
Causation vs. Correlation: Correlation does not imply causation.
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, median, mode.
Measures of Variation: Range, variance, standard deviation.
Standard Deviation Percentages on Normal Curve: 68%, 95%, 99.7% for 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations from the mean.
Neuroscience
Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System:
CNS: Brain and spinal cord.
PNS: Nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.
Neurons:
Motor Neuron: Sends signals from the CNS to muscles.
Sensory Neuron: Sends sensory information to the CNS.
Interneuron: Connects neurons within the CNS.
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System:
Sympathetic: Activates fight-or-flight response.
Parasympathetic: Promotes rest and digestion.
Autonomic vs. Somatic Nervous System:
Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions.
Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.
Brain Parts:
Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.
Amygdala: Emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
Reticular Formation: Regulates alertness and arousal.
Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and more.
Hippocampus: Memory formation.
Medulla: Controls vital functions like heartbeat and breathing.
Corpus Callosum: Connects the brain’s hemispheres.
Thalamus: Sensory relay center.
Lobes of the Brain:
Frontal: Decision-making, motor control.
Parietal: Sensory processing.
Temporal: Hearing and language.
Occipital: Vision.
Sensory Cortex: Processes sensory information.
Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements.
Limbic System: Emotion and memory.
Plasticity: The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize.
Neuron Parts: Dendrites, axon, cell body, synaptic gap, neurotransmitters.
Other Key Terms:
All-or-None Response: Neurons either fire completely or not at all.
Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer that speeds up neural transmission.
Threshold: Minimum stimulus needed for a neuron to fire.
Learning
Classical Conditioning: Learning by association (Pavlov).
UCS, CS, UCR, CR: Unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses.
Generalization and Discrimination: Responding similarly or differently to various stimuli.
Extinction: Decrease in conditioned response when UCS is removed.
Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning through rewards and punishments.
Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior.
Positive: Adding a favorable stimulus.
Negative: Removing an unfavorable stimulus.
Punishment: Weakens behavior.
Positive: Adding an unfavorable stimulus.
Negative: Removing a favorable stimulus.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed/Variable Ratio and Interval.
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (Bandura).
Modeling: Imitating observed behaviors.
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Sensation and Perception
Key Theories and Laws
Weber’s Law: The principle that the just noticeable difference (JND) is proportional to the original stimulus intensity.
Difference Threshold: The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Sensory Adaptation: The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure.
Top-Down Processing: Interpretation of sensory information based on prior knowledge and experience.
Opponent-Process Theory (Colors): Explains color vision in terms of opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).
Trichromatic Theory: Proposes three types of cones in the retina sensitive to red, green, and blue light.
Vision
Retinal Disparity: A binocular cue for depth perception based on the difference between images in each eye.
Ganglion Cells: Neurons in the retina that send signals to the brain.
Bipolar Cells: Intermediate cells in the retina connecting rods and cones to ganglion cells.
Retina: The light-sensitive layer of the eye containing rods and cones.
Rods: Detect light and dark; work well in low light.
Cones: Detect color and detail; work best in bright light.
Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
Parallel Processing: The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a stimulus (e.g., color, motion) simultaneously.
Auditory System
Place Theory: Explains how we perceive pitch by the location of vibration on the basilar membrane.
Frequency Theory: Explains how we perceive pitch by the frequency of auditory nerve impulses.
Auditory Localization: The ability to identify the location of a sound.
Cochlea: Spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that processes sound.
Auditory Nerve: Transmits auditory information from the cochlea to the brain.
Other Sensory Systems
Gate-Control Theory: Proposes a "gate" mechanism in the spinal cord that regulates the perception of pain.
Kinesthetic System: Detects body position and movement through sensors in muscles and joints.
Vestibular System: Maintains balance and spatial orientation.
Semi-Circular Canals: Detect rotational movements of the head.
Olfactory Nerve: Transmits smell information to the brain.
Attention and Perception
Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.
Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice visible stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere.
Sensory Interaction: The influence of one sense on another (e.g., smell affecting taste).
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Nature vs. Nurture
Nature vs. Nurture: The ongoing debate about whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) has a greater influence on behavior and development.
Psychological Perspectives and Key Figures
Behavioral Perspective: Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through interaction with the environment.
Watson, Skinner, Pavlov: Founders of behaviorism; contributed to classical and operant conditioning.
Cognitive Perspective: Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Piaget: Developed the theory of cognitive development in children.
Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and human potential.
Evolutionary Perspective: Considers how natural selection influences behaviors and traits.
Darwin: Proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution.
Neuroscience Perspective: Studies the biological basis of behavior, including the brain, nervous system, and genetics.
Psychodynamic Perspective: Focuses on unconscious motives and conflicts.
Freud: Developed psychoanalysis and emphasized the role of the unconscious mind.
Research and Statistics
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural context without interference.
Case Study: An in-depth examination of an individual or group.
Correlational Study: Examines the relationship between two variables without establishing causation.
Experiment: Manipulates variables to test cause-and-effect relationships.
Survey: Gathers data from a large group using questionnaires or interviews.
Replication: Repeating a study to confirm its findings.
Operational Definitions: Clear, precise definitions of variables for consistency in research.
Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge or predictions.
Generalization: Applying findings from a study to a larger population.
Random Assignment vs. Random Selection:
Random Assignment: Allocating participants to groups by chance.
Random Selection: Choosing participants randomly from a population.
Double-Blind Experiment: Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, reducing bias.
Statistical Correlation: Measures the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 (negative) to +1 (positive).
Causation vs. Correlation: Correlation does not imply causation.
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value).
Measures of Variation: Range, variance, and standard deviation.
Standard Deviation Percentages on Normal Curve: 68%, 95%, and 99.7% for 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations, respectively.
Neuroscience
Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System:
CNS: Brain and spinal cord.
PNS: Nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.
Motor Neuron: Transmits signals from the CNS to muscles.
Sensory Neuron: Transmits sensory information to the CNS.
Interneuron: Connects neurons within the CNS.
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System:
Sympathetic: Activates the fight-or-flight response.
Parasympathetic: Promotes rest and digestion.
Autonomic vs. Somatic Nervous System:
Autonomic: Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heartbeat).
Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.
Brain Parts:
Cerebellum: Coordinates balance and movement.
Amygdala: Processes emotions like fear and aggression.
Reticular Formation: Regulates arousal and attention.
Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis and regulates basic drives.
Hippocampus: Crucial for memory formation.
Medulla: Controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate.
Corpus Callosum: Connects the brain's hemispheres.
Thalamus: Acts as the brain’s sensory relay station.
Lobes of the Brain:
Frontal: Involved in decision-making and motor control.
Parietal: Processes sensory input.
Temporal: Handles auditory information and language.
Occipital: Processes visual information.
Sensory Cortex: Processes sensory input.
Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements.
Limbic System: Involved in emotion and memory.
Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself after damage.
Neuron Pathway: Signal travels from dendrites → cell body → axon → synaptic gap.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses.
Synaptic Gap: The space between neurons where neurotransmitters travel.
All-or-None Response: Neurons either fire completely or not at all.
Myelin Sheath: Speeds up neural transmission.
Threshold: The minimum stimulus required to trigger a neural impulse.
Learning
Conditioning: Learning associations between stimuli or behaviors and outcomes.
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through association.
UCS, CS, UCR, CR:
UCS: Unconditioned stimulus (naturally triggers a response).
CS: Conditioned stimulus (learned to trigger a response).
UCR: Unconditioned response (natural reaction).
CR: Conditioned response (learned reaction).
Generalization: Responding similarly to similar stimuli.
Discrimination: Differentiating between stimuli.
Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning through rewards and punishments.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a favorable stimulus.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unfavorable stimulus.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unfavorable stimulus.
Negative Punishment: Removing a favorable stimulus.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed/Variable Ratio and Interval schedules.
Latent Learning: Learning that becomes apparent only when needed.
Modeling: Learning by observing and imitating others (Bandura).
Observational Learning: Acquiring knowledge through observing behavior.
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Cognition, Language & Memory
Memory Processes
Encoding: The process of transforming information into a format suitable for storage.
Acoustic Encoding: Encoding based on sound.
Visual Encoding: Encoding based on images.
Semantic Encoding: Encoding based on meaning.
Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information (e.g., time, space).
Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort.
Types of Memory
Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative): Retention without conscious recollection (e.g., procedural tasks like riding a bike).
Explicit Memory (Declarative): Conscious recall of facts and experiences.
Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge.
Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events.
Working Memory: Active processing of information while holding it in the short term.
Long-Term Memory: Relatively permanent storage of information.
Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage for current thoughts or information.
Sensory Memory: Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.
Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory.
Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory.
Memory Errors
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into memory.
Repression: Unconscious blocking of traumatic memories.
Interference:
Proactive: Older information hinders recall of newer information.
Retroactive: Newer information hinders recall of older information.
Source Amnesia: Attributing a memory to the wrong source.
Memory Enhancements
Mnemonics: Memory aids using vivid imagery or organizational devices.
Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units.
Mood-Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood.
State-Dependent Memory: Information is better recalled when in the same state as during encoding.
Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better.
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for problem-solving.
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging based on resemblance to a prototype.
Availability Heuristic: Judging based on how easily examples come to mind.
Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.
Framing Effect: The way a problem or question is presented affects decision-making.
Belief Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs even after they have been discredited.
Overconfidence: Overestimating the accuracy of one's judgments.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms preexisting beliefs.
Language
Prototype: A mental image or best example of a category.
Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound in language (e.g., "b" in "bat").
Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning in language (e.g., "un-" in "undo").
States of Consciousness
Stages of Sleep:
REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement; associated with vivid dreams.
EEG Waves:
Beta Waves: Active, alert state.
Alpha Waves: Relaxed, awake state.
Theta Waves: Light sleep.
Delta Waves: Deep sleep.
Sleep Spindles: Bursts of brain activity during light sleep.
Dream Theories:
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from the brain trying to make sense of random neural activity.
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.
Sleep Apnea: Pauses in breathing during sleep.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Sleepwalking: Performing tasks while asleep.
Night Terrors: Episodes of intense fear and screaming during deep sleep.
Drugs and Effects
Tolerance: Diminished effect of a drug with repeated use.
Withdrawal: Physical and psychological discomfort after stopping a drug.
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Intelligence & Testing
General Intelligence ("g")
A theory suggesting a single, general intelligence factor underlies all mental abilities (introduced by Charles Spearman).
Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
Suggests there are various forms of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving and logical reasoning.
Creative Intelligence: Ability to deal with new situations and generate novel ideas.
Practical Intelligence: Street smarts and everyday problem-solving.
Savant Syndrome
A condition where a person with limited mental ability demonstrates exceptional skill in a specific area (e.g., music, math).
Testing Concepts
Reliability: The consistency of a test over time.
Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
Construct Validity: How well a test measures a theoretical construct.
Predictive Validity: How well a test predicts future performance.
IQ Formula
IQ = Mental Age
Chronological Age
×100
\frac{\text{Mental Age}}{\text{Chronological Age}} \times 100
• Chronological Age | • |
• |
• ×100
(Developed by Alfred Binet; later adapted by Terman into the Stanford-Binet Test.)
Stereotype Threat
Anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's group, which can impair performance.
Development
Language Development
Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound (e.g., "p" in "pat").
Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning (e.g., "un-" in "undo").
Critical Period
A time during early development when the brain is particularly receptive to learning certain skills or knowledge.
Imprinting
A process in which animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period (studied by Lorenz).
Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years): Understanding the world through senses and actions; develops object permanence.
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years): Symbolic thinking; lacks conservation; exhibits egocentrism.
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understands conservation and reversibility.
Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract and moral reasoning.
Schema, Assimilation, and Accommodation
Schema: Mental framework for organizing information.
Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.
Accommodation: Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Scaffolding: Support provided by a more knowledgeable other.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Gap between what a child can do independently and