Midterm

Cochlea: The spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into neural signals.

Basilar membrane: A membrane within the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound, aiding in sound detection.

Middle ear: The part of the ear between the eardrum and cochlea, which includes the ossicles (tiny bones that amplify sound).

Inner ear: The part of the ear that contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Auditory nerve: The nerve responsible for transmitting auditory information from the cochlea to the brain.

Neuroscience

Brain plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and form new neural connections throughout life in response to injury or learning.

Nature vs. Nurture: The debate about the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on human behavior and development.

Genetic predispositions: Inherited tendencies or traits that make an individual more likely to develop certain behaviors or conditions.

Endocrine system: The system of glands that release hormones to regulate bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, and mood.

Autonomic nervous system: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

Peripheral nervous system: The network of nerves that exists outside the central nervous system, connecting the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

Action potentials: The electrical impulses that travel down the axon of a neuron to transmit information.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain that transmit signals across synapses. Examples include:

Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that reduce pain and increase feelings of pleasure.

Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

Agonist: A substance that enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist: A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Interneurons: Neurons that communicate between sensory and motor neurons, typically found in the brain and spinal cord.

Motor neurons: Neurons that carry information from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sensory neurons: Neurons that carry sensory information from sensory receptors to the brain or spinal cord.

Myelin sheath: The fatty layer surrounding the axons of some neurons that speeds up electrical impulses.

Michael Gazzaniga (split-brain research): A psychologist known for his research on split-brain patients, investigating the brain’s lateralization of function.

Research Methods

Replication: Repeating a study to verify its findings and ensure reliability.

Random sampling: A method of selecting participants in which everyone in a population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Random assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups randomly to ensure that results are not biased.

Operational definitions: Clear, precise definitions of variables that allow for measurement and replication.

Double-blind procedure: A research method where both the participants and researchers are unaware of which group participants are in, reducing bias.

Correlation coefficients: A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1, with 0 indicating no relationship.

REM sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and increased brain activity.

NREM sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep, which includes stages 1-3 and is marked by slower brain activity and physical restoration.

Sleep cycle: The pattern of cycling through NREM and REM stages during sleep, typically occurring every 90 minutes.

Dream theories: Theories explaining the purpose and meaning of dreams, including Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and the activation-synthesis theory.

Brain Structures and Functions

Medulla: The part of the brainstem that controls basic life-sustaining functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

Cerebellum: The brain region responsible for coordination, balance, and fine motor control.

Thalamus: The brain’s relay station, directing sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cortex.

Amygdala: A part of the limbic system involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus: A brain structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation.

Occipital lobes: The brain lobes located at the back of the head, responsible for processing visual information.

Temporal lobes: The brain lobes located on the sides of the head, responsible for processing auditory information and language.

Visual cortex: The area of the brain in the occipital lobe responsible for processing visual information.

Framing: The way information is presented, which can influence decision-making and judgment.

Stereotypes: Oversimplified generalizations about groups of people.

Perceptual adaptation: The brain’s ability to adjust to changes in sensory input, like altered vision or hearing.

Perceptual set: A mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on expectations or experiences.

Serial processing: The cognitive process of handling information one step at a time, as opposed to parallel processing.

Selective attention: Focusing attention on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Spacing effect: The phenomenon where information is better retained if learning is spread out over time.

Serial position effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Long-term potentiation: The strengthening of synapses based on repeated stimulation, thought to be a mechanism of learning and memory.

Automatic processing: The unconscious encoding of information, such as space, time, and frequency.

Dual processing: The theory that information is processed simultaneously through two channels: conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit).

Drug Use and Tolerance

Drug tolerance: The reduced effectiveness of a drug after repeated use, leading to the need for higher doses.

Withdrawal: The symptoms that occur when a person stops using a drug, typically the opposite of the drug’s effects.

Addiction: A compulsive need for and use of a substance despite harmful consequences