Psy 261 ch. 10: aggression

Aggression

  • cyberbullying: bullying, harassing, or threatening someone using electronic communication such as texting, online social networks, or email

What is aggression?

  • aggression: physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone/cause harm.
    • includes kicks, slaps, threats and insults, gossip, and online harassment, destroying property, and lying among other things
  • physical aggression: hurting someone else’s body
  • social aggression: hurting someone else’s feelings or threatening their relationships
    • sometimes called relational aggression
    • includes cyberbullying, gossip, and social exclusion
  • microaggressions: words or actions that unintentionally convey prejudice toward marginalized groups
    • doesn’t fit into the definition of aggression because it has to be intentional
  • hostile aggression: aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure
    • can be physical or social
    • most murders are hostile
  • instrumental aggression: also aims to injure but is committed in the pursuit of another goal
    • can be physical or social
    • most terrorism and wars are instrumental

What are some theories of aggression?

  • aggression as a biological phenomenon
    • evolutionary psychologists thought that aggressive energy is instinctive: an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species
    • this was disproved by the fact that supposed human instincts come with almost every behavior, and it fails to account for variations in aggressiveness from person to person
    • there is an evolutionary aspect to it though
    • seen especially with men, purposeful aggression improved the odds of survival and reproduction
      • Mating-related aggression often occurs when males are competing with other males
    • neural influences → although aggression is complex so there isn’t one spot that controls it, researchers have found brain neural systems that facilitate aggression
    • blood chemistry influences aggressive behavior
    • alcohol unleashes aggression when people are provoked; alcohol is associated with higher levels of aggression
    • human aggressiveness correlates with the male sex hormone testosterone
    • poor diet impacts aggression: to lower aggression, eat a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids, low in trans fat, and without sweetened drinks
    • neural, genetic, and biochemical influences predispose some people to react aggressively to conflict and provocation
  • aggression as a response to frustration
    • frustration: the blocking of goal-directed behavior; grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expected gratification, and when the blocking is complete
    • frustration-aggression theory: the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress
    • Laboratory tests of the frustration-aggression theory have produced mixed results: Sometimes frustration increased aggressiveness, sometimes not
      • if frustration was understandable, it led to irritation, not aggression
    • berkowitz realized that the original theory overstated the frustration-aggression connection, so he revised it.
      • Berkowitz theorized that frustration produces aggression only when others’ actions seem unjustified; for instance, when someone who frustrated them could have chosen to act otherwise, leading to feelings of anger
    • displacement theory: the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target
    • frustration often arises from the gap between expectations and attainments
    • relative deprivation: the perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself
  • aggression as a learned social behavior
    • Theories of aggression based on instinct and frustration assume that hostile urges erupt from inner emotions, which naturally “push” aggression from within. Social psychologists also contend that learning “pulls” aggression out of us
    • social learning theory: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished
    • American South: culture of honor; higher aggression rates and rates of suicide
    • aggressive acts are motivated by a variety of aversive experiences that arouse us emotionally: frustration, pain, insults
    • but whether we act aggressively depends on the consequences we anticipate → aggression is most likely when we are aroused and it seems safe and rewarding to aggress

What are some influences on aggression?

  • aversive experiences
    • pain
    • pain heightens aggressiveness
    • heat
    • other temporary climate variations have been linked with aggression as well, like cigarette smoke, air pollution, and bad smells, but heat has been studied the most
    • a correlation between heat and increased anger has been found, but NOT causation
    • attacks
    • being attacked or insulted is especially likely to provoke aggression
  • arousal
    • arousal fuels emotions
    • a state of arousal can be interpreted in different ways depending on the context
  • aggression cues
    • violence is more likely when aggressive cues release pent-up anger, like the sight of a weapon
    • weapons effect: the mere presence of weapons increased aggressive thoughts and behaviors
    • Guns not only serve as aggression cues but also put psychological distance between aggressor and victim. As Milgram’s obedience studies taught us, remoteness from the victim facilitates cruelty
  • media influences
    • pornography
    • viewing such fictional scenes of a man overpowering and arousing a woman can (a) distort men’s (and possibly women’s) perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion and (b) increase men’s aggression against women
    • exposure to sexual violence increases acceptance of the rape myth (that some women would welcome sexual assault)
    • viewing simulated sexual violence contributes to men’s actual aggression toward women
    • TV, movies, and videos
    • The more violent the content of the child’s TV viewing, the more aggressive the child
    • Girls who watched more shows featuring gossiping, backbiting, and social exclusion more often displayed such behavior later
    • exposure to violent media is a significant predictor of aggression
    • why does media viewing affect behavior?
      • the arousal watching violence produces
      • viewing violence disinhibits
      • media portrayals evoke imitation
    • prosocial behavior: Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior
    • video games
    • playing violent video games does, on average, increase aggressive behavior, thoughts, and feelings outside the game.
    • violent video games caused aggression even when participants were randomly assigned to play them (versus a nonviolent game), which rules out the possibility that (for example) aggressive people like to play aggressive games.
    • playing violent video games has an array of effects:
      • increases in aggressive behaviors
      • increases in aggressive thoughts
      • increases in aggressive feelings
      • greater likelihood of carrying a weapon
      • decreases in self-control and increases in antisocial behavior
      • decreases in self-control and increases in antisocial behavior
    • catharsis (emotional release) hypothesis: the aggressive drive is reduced when one “releases” aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression
      • been disproven; violence breeds rather than releases violence
  • group influences
    • groups can amplify aggressive reactions partly by diffusing responsibility
    • Through social “contagion,” groups magnify aggressive tendencies, much as they polarize other tendencies
    • social psychologists have studied aggression in both the laboratory and everyday worlds. In both contexts, increased aggression is predicted by the following:
    • Being male
    • Aggressive or anger-prone personalities
    • Alcohol use
    • Violence viewing
    • Anonymity
    • Provocation
    • The presence of weapons
    • Group interaction

How can aggression be reduced?

  • Catharsis?
    • hydraulic model: implies accumulated aggressive energy, like dammed-up water, needs a release
    • Silent sulking is hardly more effective because it allows us to continue reciting our grievances as we conduct conversations in our heads
    • Across cultures, those who reframe accusatory “you” messages as “I” messages — “I feel angry about what you said” or “I get irritated when you leave dirty dishes” — communicate their feelings in a way that better enables the other person to make a positive response
    • we can be assertive without being aggressive
  • social learning approach
    • Threatened punishment can deter aggression but only under ideal conditions: when the punishment is strong, prompt, and sure; when it is combined with a reward for the desired behavior; and when the recipient is not angry
    • we must prevent aggression before it happens. We must teach nonaggressive conflict-resolution strategies.
  • culture change and world violence
    • the US has seen declines/disappearances of aggressive and violent acts such as:
    • lynchings
    • rapes
    • corporal punishment
    • antigay attitudes