AP HUG
UNIT 1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
Core Concepts
Geography: study of where things are and why they are there
Spatial Perspective: analyzing patterns based on location
Scale: level of study from local to global
Pattern: how something is arranged in space
Process: how something changes over time
Location & Place
Absolute Location: exact location using latitude and longitude
Relative Location: location compared to other places
Place: physical and human characteristics of a location
Site: physical features of a place (climate, terrain)
Situation: location relative to surroundings
Space & Movement
Distance Decay: interaction decreases with distance
Friction of Distance: obstacles like cost and time that reduce interaction
Time-Space Compression: faster travel/communication reduces distance effects
Diffusion
Diffusion: spread of ideas or things across space
Relocation Diffusion: spread through movement of people
Expansion Diffusion: spreads outward while remaining strong at origin
Contagious Diffusion: rapid spread through contact
Hierarchical Diffusion: spread through influential nodes
Stimulus Diffusion: idea adapts as it spreads
Maps
Reference Map: shows general geographic features
Thematic Map: shows specific data
Choropleth Map: shading shows data values
Dot Map: dots represent quantity/location
Graduated Symbol Map: symbol size shows value
Isoline Map: lines connect equal values
Map Projections
Projection: flat representation of Earth
Mercator Projection: preserves direction, distorts size
Robinson Projection: balances distortion
Goode Projection: preserves shape, interrupts oceans
Regions
Region: area with shared traits
Formal Region: same characteristic throughout
Functional Region: organized around a central node
Perceptual Region: based on human opinion
Data & Tools
GIS (Geographic Information System): layered spatial data analysis
GPS (Global Positioning System): satellite-based location system
Remote Sensing: collecting data from satellites
Geospatial Data: data tied to location
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UNIT 2: POPULATION & MIGRATION
Density
Arithmetic Density: total people per land area
Physiological Density: people per farmland (pressure on food)
Agricultural Density: farmers per farmland (tech level indicator)
Population Distribution
Population Distribution: where people live
Carrying Capacity: max population land can support
Population Theories
Malthusian Theory: population grows faster than food supply
Neo-Malthusian: resources will run out
Anti-Malthusian: technology increases food supply
🔥 MODEL: DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (DTM)
DTM: shows how population changes as a country develops
Stages:
High birth/death → low growth
High birth, low death → rapid growth
Falling birth/death → slowing growth
Low birth/death → stable
Very low birth → population decline
👉 Shows: link between development and population
👉 Matters: predicts future growth and planning needs
Population Metrics
CBR (Crude Birth Rate): births per 1000 people
CDR (Crude Death Rate): deaths per 1000 people
TFR (Total Fertility Rate): average children per woman
IMR (Infant Mortality Rate): infant deaths per 1000
Life Expectancy: average lifespan
🔥 MODEL: POPULATION PYRAMID
Population Pyramid: age and sex structure diagram
👉 Shows: future population growth trends
👉 Matters: predicts workforce, aging, and economic needs
Migration
Migration: permanent relocation
Immigration: moving into a country
Emigration: leaving a country
Migration Factors
Push Factors: conditions forcing people to leave
Pull Factors: conditions attracting people
Migration Types
Voluntary Migration: choice-based move
Forced Migration: no choice (slavery, war)
Chain Migration: following previous migrants
Step Migration: moving in stages
Other Terms
Refugee: person fleeing danger
Internally Displaced Person (IDP): displaced within country
Net Migration: difference between in and out migration
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UNIT 3: CULTURAL PATTERNS
Culture Basics
Culture: beliefs, behaviors, and traditions of a group
Cultural Trait: single behavior or belief
Cultural Complex: group of related traits
Cultural Patterns
Cultural Hearth: origin area of a culture
Cultural Landscape: visible human impact on environment
Language
Language: system of communication
Dialect: regional variation of a language
Lingua Franca: common language between groups
Pidgin: simplified mix of languages
Creole: fully developed pidgin
Religion
Religion: organized beliefs and practices
Universalizing Religion: seeks converts (Christianity, Islam)
Ethnic Religion: tied to one group/place
Ethnicity
Ethnicity: shared cultural identity
Ethnic Enclave: cluster of same ethnic group
Acculturation: adopting some traits of another culture
Assimilation: losing original culture completely
Multiculturalism: multiple cultures coexist
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UNIT 4: POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
States & Nations
State: politically organized territory with government
Nation: group with shared identity
Nation-State: nation and state align
Political Organization
Sovereignty: ability to govern itself
Federal State: power shared between national and local
Unitary State: power centralized
Devolution: transfer of power to regional governments
Boundaries
Boundary: border between states
Defined Boundary: written description
Delimited Boundary: drawn on map
Demarcated Boundary: physically marked
Boundary Types
Natural Boundary: physical features
Geometric Boundary: straight lines
Cultural Boundary: based on cultural differences
Political Processes
Gerrymandering: redraw districts for advantage
Redistricting: redrawing voting boundaries
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UNIT 5: AGRICULTURE
Basics
Agriculture: growing crops and raising animals
Subsistence Farming: producing food for self
Commercial Farming: producing food for sale
🔥 MODEL: VON THÜNEN MODEL
Von Thünen Model: rings of agricultural land use around a city
Rings:
Perishable goods
Forest
Crops
Ranching
👉 Shows: distance affects farming choices
👉 Matters: transport cost determines land use
Farming Types
Shifting Cultivation: slash-and-burn farming
Pastoral Nomadism: moving livestock
Intensive Farming: high labor per land
Extensive Farming: low labor per land
Agricultural Terms
Crop Rotation: alternating crops to maintain soil
Monocropping: growing one crop repeatedly
Agribusiness: large-scale commercial farming
Green Revolution
Green Revolution: new farming technology increasing yields
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UNIT 6: INDUSTRY & DEVELOPMENT
Development
Development: level of economic and social well-being
HDI: index of health, education, income
GDP: total economic output
GNI: total income of a country
Economic Sectors
Primary Sector: raw materials
Secondary Sector: manufacturing
Tertiary Sector: services
Quaternary Sector: knowledge-based jobs
🔥 MODEL: WEBER’S MODEL
Weber’s Model: industry location based on minimizing cost
👉 Shows: best location for factories
👉 Matters: transport, labor, and clustering influence location
Industry Terms
Outsourcing: moving jobs abroad
Industrialization: growth of manufacturing
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UNIT 7: URBAN GEOGRAPHY
🔥 MODEL: CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL
Concentric Model: city organized in rings
👉 Shows: urban growth outward from CBD
🔥 MODEL: SECTOR MODEL
Sector Model: city develops in wedges
👉 Shows: growth along transportation routes
🔥 MODEL: MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL
Multiple Nuclei Model: multiple centers
👉 Shows: cities have different hubs
Urban Terms
CBD (Central Business District): economic center
Urbanization: growth of cities
Suburb: residential area outside city
Gentrification: wealthier people move in, raising costs
Urban Sprawl: spread of city outward