AP HUG


UNIT 1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY




Core Concepts



  • Geography: study of where things are and why they are there

  • Spatial Perspective: analyzing patterns based on location

  • Scale: level of study from local to global

  • Pattern: how something is arranged in space

  • Process: how something changes over time






Location & Place



  • Absolute Location: exact location using latitude and longitude

  • Relative Location: location compared to other places

  • Place: physical and human characteristics of a location

  • Site: physical features of a place (climate, terrain)

  • Situation: location relative to surroundings






Space & Movement



  • Distance Decay: interaction decreases with distance

  • Friction of Distance: obstacles like cost and time that reduce interaction

  • Time-Space Compression: faster travel/communication reduces distance effects






Diffusion



  • Diffusion: spread of ideas or things across space

  • Relocation Diffusion: spread through movement of people

  • Expansion Diffusion: spreads outward while remaining strong at origin

  • Contagious Diffusion: rapid spread through contact

  • Hierarchical Diffusion: spread through influential nodes

  • Stimulus Diffusion: idea adapts as it spreads






Maps



  • Reference Map: shows general geographic features

  • Thematic Map: shows specific data

  • Choropleth Map: shading shows data values

  • Dot Map: dots represent quantity/location

  • Graduated Symbol Map: symbol size shows value

  • Isoline Map: lines connect equal values






Map Projections



  • Projection: flat representation of Earth

  • Mercator Projection: preserves direction, distorts size

  • Robinson Projection: balances distortion

  • Goode Projection: preserves shape, interrupts oceans






Regions



  • Region: area with shared traits

  • Formal Region: same characteristic throughout

  • Functional Region: organized around a central node

  • Perceptual Region: based on human opinion






Data & Tools



  • GIS (Geographic Information System): layered spatial data analysis

  • GPS (Global Positioning System): satellite-based location system

  • Remote Sensing: collecting data from satellites

  • Geospatial Data: data tied to location







👥

UNIT 2: POPULATION & MIGRATION




Density



  • Arithmetic Density: total people per land area

  • Physiological Density: people per farmland (pressure on food)

  • Agricultural Density: farmers per farmland (tech level indicator)






Population Distribution



  • Population Distribution: where people live

  • Carrying Capacity: max population land can support






Population Theories



  • Malthusian Theory: population grows faster than food supply

  • Neo-Malthusian: resources will run out

  • Anti-Malthusian: technology increases food supply






🔥 MODEL: DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (DTM)



  • DTM: shows how population changes as a country develops




Stages:



  1. High birth/death → low growth

  2. High birth, low death → rapid growth

  3. Falling birth/death → slowing growth

  4. Low birth/death → stable

  5. Very low birth → population decline



👉 Shows: link between development and population

👉 Matters: predicts future growth and planning needs





Population Metrics



  • CBR (Crude Birth Rate): births per 1000 people

  • CDR (Crude Death Rate): deaths per 1000 people

  • TFR (Total Fertility Rate): average children per woman

  • IMR (Infant Mortality Rate): infant deaths per 1000

  • Life Expectancy: average lifespan






🔥 MODEL: POPULATION PYRAMID



  • Population Pyramid: age and sex structure diagram



👉 Shows: future population growth trends

👉 Matters: predicts workforce, aging, and economic needs





Migration



  • Migration: permanent relocation

  • Immigration: moving into a country

  • Emigration: leaving a country






Migration Factors



  • Push Factors: conditions forcing people to leave

  • Pull Factors: conditions attracting people






Migration Types



  • Voluntary Migration: choice-based move

  • Forced Migration: no choice (slavery, war)

  • Chain Migration: following previous migrants

  • Step Migration: moving in stages






Other Terms



  • Refugee: person fleeing danger

  • Internally Displaced Person (IDP): displaced within country

  • Net Migration: difference between in and out migration







🏙

UNIT 3: CULTURAL PATTERNS




Culture Basics



  • Culture: beliefs, behaviors, and traditions of a group

  • Cultural Trait: single behavior or belief

  • Cultural Complex: group of related traits






Cultural Patterns



  • Cultural Hearth: origin area of a culture

  • Cultural Landscape: visible human impact on environment






Language



  • Language: system of communication

  • Dialect: regional variation of a language

  • Lingua Franca: common language between groups

  • Pidgin: simplified mix of languages

  • Creole: fully developed pidgin






Religion



  • Religion: organized beliefs and practices

  • Universalizing Religion: seeks converts (Christianity, Islam)

  • Ethnic Religion: tied to one group/place






Ethnicity



  • Ethnicity: shared cultural identity

  • Ethnic Enclave: cluster of same ethnic group

  • Acculturation: adopting some traits of another culture

  • Assimilation: losing original culture completely

  • Multiculturalism: multiple cultures coexist







🌆

UNIT 4: POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY




States & Nations



  • State: politically organized territory with government

  • Nation: group with shared identity

  • Nation-State: nation and state align






Political Organization



  • Sovereignty: ability to govern itself

  • Federal State: power shared between national and local

  • Unitary State: power centralized

  • Devolution: transfer of power to regional governments






Boundaries



  • Boundary: border between states

  • Defined Boundary: written description

  • Delimited Boundary: drawn on map

  • Demarcated Boundary: physically marked






Boundary Types



  • Natural Boundary: physical features

  • Geometric Boundary: straight lines

  • Cultural Boundary: based on cultural differences






Political Processes



  • Gerrymandering: redraw districts for advantage

  • Redistricting: redrawing voting boundaries







🌱

UNIT 5: AGRICULTURE




Basics



  • Agriculture: growing crops and raising animals

  • Subsistence Farming: producing food for self

  • Commercial Farming: producing food for sale






🔥 MODEL: VON THÜNEN MODEL



  • Von Thünen Model: rings of agricultural land use around a city




Rings:



  1. Perishable goods

  2. Forest

  3. Crops

  4. Ranching



👉 Shows: distance affects farming choices

👉 Matters: transport cost determines land use





Farming Types



  • Shifting Cultivation: slash-and-burn farming

  • Pastoral Nomadism: moving livestock

  • Intensive Farming: high labor per land

  • Extensive Farming: low labor per land






Agricultural Terms



  • Crop Rotation: alternating crops to maintain soil

  • Monocropping: growing one crop repeatedly

  • Agribusiness: large-scale commercial farming






Green Revolution



  • Green Revolution: new farming technology increasing yields







🏭

UNIT 6: INDUSTRY & DEVELOPMENT




Development



  • Development: level of economic and social well-being

  • HDI: index of health, education, income

  • GDP: total economic output

  • GNI: total income of a country






Economic Sectors



  • Primary Sector: raw materials

  • Secondary Sector: manufacturing

  • Tertiary Sector: services

  • Quaternary Sector: knowledge-based jobs






🔥 MODEL: WEBER’S MODEL



  • Weber’s Model: industry location based on minimizing cost



👉 Shows: best location for factories

👉 Matters: transport, labor, and clustering influence location





Industry Terms



  • Outsourcing: moving jobs abroad

  • Industrialization: growth of manufacturing







🚚

UNIT 7: URBAN GEOGRAPHY






🔥 MODEL: CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL



  • Concentric Model: city organized in rings



👉 Shows: urban growth outward from CBD





🔥 MODEL: SECTOR MODEL



  • Sector Model: city develops in wedges



👉 Shows: growth along transportation routes





🔥 MODEL: MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL



  • Multiple Nuclei Model: multiple centers



👉 Shows: cities have different hubs






Urban Terms



  • CBD (Central Business District): economic center

  • Urbanization: growth of cities

  • Suburb: residential area outside city

  • Gentrification: wealthier people move in, raising costs

  • Urban Sprawl: spread of city outward