Gilded Age, Populism, and Progressive Era — Vocabulary Flashcards

20. Introduction

• Chapter focus: politics in the Gilded Age, 1870–1900.
• L. Frank Baum (journalist) becomes prominent in the late 19th century.
• Baum’s Oz origin story (told to schoolchildren in South Dakota) linked to political allegory: a Kansas girl seeking help from a “wonderful wizard” who turns out to be a fraud; Oz labeled by poplar analysis as an allegory for populist concerns where government in Washington seemed ineffectual.
• Populist symbolism: Dorothy’s journey mirrors farmers’ search for federal reform; Oz’s wizard parallels perceived shortcomings of federal leadership.
• Theme: populists looked for answers similar to Dorothy; government in Washington appeared meek rather than magical.

20.1 Political corruption in postbellum America

• Learning objectives: understand the national political scene in the Gilded Age; analyze why critics called it a period of ineffective national leadership; examine Reconstruction’s challenges and the post-slavery economy; address race relations and social repair; concerns for farmers (arid western soils, global markets) and urban workers (long hours, hazardous conditions, stagnant wages).

• Economic backdrop for farmers: rising debts, falling crop prices driven by more acreage, productive tools, global competition, price manipulation by commodity traders, exorbitant railroad freight rates, and costly loans.

• Consequences: widespread hardship, leadership vacuums in Washington, rise of fractured/corrupt political groups at state and federal levels.

• Presidential power during the era: highly contested elections; razor-thin popular majorities; some presidents won electoral college without clear popular majorities.

• Congress characteristics: patronage-driven, weak mandates; politicians depended on party and financial contributors for votes.

• Outcomes: minimal federal legislation; ongoing economic growth produced unresolved problems.

• Urbanization and rural decline: overcrowded cities with tenements and poor sanitation; rural poverty due to low prices and high costs.

• Reform impulse: grassroots reform movements formed to address failures and concerns about corruption.

• Cultural critique: Mark Twain’s phrase The Gilded Age underscored surface prosperity masking inequality and corruption.

• Mark Twain and The Gilded Age, a tale of today (1873) critique:

  • Satire of Washington and Southern politics, revealing graft and the lure of wealth.
  • Excerpt from The Gilded Age conversation (chapter 51) illustrating Congress’s self-cleaning rhetoric and cycles of bribery investigations; 60–80+ members implicated historically, followed by investigations into seat purchases and minor irregularities.
  • Popular reception: humor and critique helped the book’s success and provided lasting insight into the era.

• 1876 election context:

  • Panic of 1873 induced economic downturn lasting to 1879; Grant’s tenure marred by scandal (Credit Mobilier of America).
  • Hayes (Republican) pursued hard money and civil service reform; no significant scandals in his past unlike Grant.
  • Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden, New York reformer who fought Tammany Hall corruption (William M. Tweed).
  • Both parties claimed reform platforms and promised end to Reconstruction; Bloody Shirt strategy invoked by Republicans to remind voters of Civil War toll.
  • Election dynamics: neither candidate actively campaigned; intense factionalism and racial violence in the South (White supremacist intimidation, Red Shirts, White League).
  • Outcome: contested results; Electoral Commission (8–7 party-line) declared Hayes victorious; Reconstruction ends with troop withdrawal in the South; Redeemers regain control; public outrage remains limited due to waning expectations of federal leadership.

• Patronage and civil service context:

  • Spoils system vs civil service reform central to the era’s politics.
  • Hayes’s partial reforms: new patronage rules, removal of Conkling ally Chester A. Arthur from customs house, prohibition on party leaders managing appointments, and eligibility restrictions for appointees to campaign roles.
  • Conkling and Blaine (Stalwarts vs Half-Breeds) argued for reform but faced internal opposition.
  • Hayes’s limited achievements contributed to his politically constrained reelection prospects.

• Garfield assassination and civil service reform momentum:

  • Garfield assassinated by Charles Guiteau (stalwart) after campaign disappointment and patronage requests.
  • Arthur shifts from party loyalist to reform advocate; signs Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883).
  • Pendleton Act established the Civil Service Commission, created a competitive examination process for roughly 10% of government jobs, and prevented shrinking of civil service lists; aimed at insulating appointments from partisan politics.
  • Arthur’s broader reforms: modest but pivotal in civil service, anti-patronage stance, and limiting party control over appointments.

• Tariff policy and its political salience:

  • Tariffs framed as a central economic and political issue; protectionism favored by industrialists; concerns about cost of imported goods for workers and farmers.
  • 1882 Tariff Commission recommended about a 25% rollback; actual policy (Mongrel Tariff of 1883) reduced rates by about 5 ext{\%}.
  • 1884 election context: Mugwumps (reform-minded Republicans) split from Blaine faction; Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland (reform-oriented but constrained by party dynamics).
  • 1887 Interstate Commerce Act established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad rates; initial enforcement was weak.
  • 1890s tariff debates peak with the McKinley Tariff (1890) raising rates; later reform attempts aimed to roll back tariffs; public dissatisfaction persisted.
  • Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) sought to curb monopolies; limited enforcement in early decades.
  • Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890): government minted silver to increase money in circulation; undermined gold reserves; repeal signed by Cleveland in 1893.
  • Other measures: force bill to protect voters in the South; education bill for literacy among African Americans; many faced defeat.

• Gold standard vs silver debate:

  • Recurrent calls for bimetallism to expand money supply and ease debt burden on farmers and workers.
  • Government maintained a gold standard at the expense of silver and broader monetary expansion; the Silver Purchase Act aimed to mint large quantities of silver but depleted gold reserves; its repeal did little to allay farmer debt.
  • The monetary issue remained central to populist and later progressive critique.

• Summary of 20.1 implications:

  • Weak presidential leadership and party patronage created a system prone to corruption and limited effective reform.
  • Corporate and financial interests heavily influenced politics and policy outcomes.
  • The era’s economic transformations generated pressures for reform that would later feed into the Progressive movement.

20.2 The key political issues: patronage, tariffs, and gold

• Core questions: spoils system vs civil service; tariff policy; gold standard vs free coinage of silver; patronage as a party mechanism; and the role of political parties in a period of reform.

• Spoils system vs civil service:

  • Spoils system: presidents appointed friends/supporters to government posts as rewards for loyalty.
  • Jacksonian precedent: 1829, Andrew Jackson removed over 900 political offices, including many in the Postal Service; this illustrates the extent of patronage.
  • Civil service reform emerged early (1872 Liberal Republican movement) and gained traction during the 1880s, culminating in the Pendleton Act (1883) and subsequent reforms.
  • Hayes’s limited but symbolic reforms attempted to constrain patronage; he faced opposition from party leaders and factions (Conkling’s stalwarts and Blaine’s half-breeds).
  • Garfield–Arthur sequence: assassination underscores urgency of reform; Pendleton Act enacted to professionalize civil service and reduce political manipulation of appointments.

• Tariffs:

  • Tariffs as a tool to shield domestic industry vs. reducing consumer costs through cheaper imports.
  • Tariff policy tied to political alignments: industrialists favored higher tariffs; workers and farmers often favored lower tariffs to reduce prices.
  • Tariff evolution: 1882 Tariff Commission recommended 25% rollback; actual Mongrel Tariff of 1883 lowered rates modestly; 1890 McKinley Tariff raised rates significantly; subsequent debates continued into the 1890s.
  • The debate connected to broader questions of economic equity, monopolies, and global competition.

• Gold standard vs silver coinage:

  • Gold standard favored by industrialists and bankers; expanded monetary stability for international trade but constrained money supply.
  • Silver movement, including the free coinage of silver advocated by populists and Bryan, sought inflationary relief for debtors (farmers/workers).
  • The Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890) minted large amounts of silver but depleted gold reserves, contributing to monetary strain and eventual repeal in 1893.
  • Klondike/Yukon gold discovery (1896–1899) later reinforced gold standard credibility, complicating silver advocates’ goals.

• 19th-century political context:

  • The two major parties often appeared indistinguishable on major reforms, focusing on patronage and loyalty rather than substantive policy change.
  • The public increasingly believed in laissez-faire government and limited federal intervention, contributing to a sense of political stagnation as economic modernization continued.

• Summary: 20.2 implications:

  • Patronage vs civil service reform defined the politics of the era; reform movements and key legislations gradually altered federal appointments.
  • Tariff policy and monetary policy reflected deep tensions between industrial growth, consumer costs, and debt relief for farmers/workers.
  • The era’s political climate set the stage for the rise of the Populist movement and, later, the Progressive era.

• 20.2 key numerical references (for study):

  • Electoral dynamics in contested elections often featured razor-thin majorities; in 1876, Hayes’s victory followed a disputed process.
  • The Pendleton Act targeted roughly 10% of federal offices for competitive exams; future presidents could expand but not shrink this list.
  • Electoral commission vote: 8 to 7 along party lines in determining the Hayes victory in the disputed states.
  • The Mongrel Tariff of 1883 produced only modest rate reductions (~$5 ext{%}$).
  • The McKinley Tariff (1890) raised rates substantially (
    ext{up to }50 ext{ ext{%}} ext{ in some industries}).
  • The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) established the ICC; initial enforcement was weak due to limited powers.
  • The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) aimed to curb monopolies; enforcement limited in the early years.
  • The Depression following 1893–1894 had unemployment up to 3 imes 10^{6} workers at peak; in some states, unemployment exceeded 35 ext{ ext{%}} (NY) and 43 ext{ ext{%}} (MI).

20.3 Farmers' revolt in the era

• Origins and pressures:

  • Farmers faced a trifecta of economic hardship: rising tariffs on needed goods, foreign competition, and overproduction lowering crop prices.
  • Overproduction intensified debt as more land and tools increased yields; farmers produced more to cover debts, prices dropped further.
  • Monetary policy (gold standard) constrained money in circulation; demand for inflationary pressure.
  • Tariffs increased living costs for farmers while not adequately supporting farm prices through protective measures.
  • Diverse regional needs among farmers led to organizing across state lines.

• Early organization and movements:

  • Grange (Patrons of Husbandry) founded in 1867 by Oliver Hudson Kelley; by a decade, >1.5 imes 10^{6} members; sought cooperatives to improve shipping rates and input pricing.
  • Granger laws in states like Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Iowa aimed at regulating railroad rates and grain elevator pricing; Wabash v. Illinois (1886) limited state regulation of interstate commerce.
  • Greenback Party promoted currency not tied to gold; brief success in electing several congressmen.
  • Farmers Alliance emerged in the mid-1880s; merged into a national coalition by 1890 with White and Black alliances; reached >2.5 imes 10^{6} members (about 1.5 million white and 1 million black).
  • Women played visible roles; ~2.5 imes 10^{5} women joined, advocating for broader political participation and suffrage.
  • Mary Elizabeth Lease (Kansas) popularized the phrase about “less corn and more hell.”
  • Grains of reform: regulation of railroad prices, inflationary monetary policy, cooperative economics.

• The Omaha Platform (1892):

  • The Populist Party emerged from the Alliance movement; by 1891, it formed a national third party.
  • Platform proposals included: subtreasury plan (government storage of crops with 80% loan against price), federal control over railroads, abolition of the national banking system, federal income tax, direct election of US senators, and other reforms to empower farmers and workers.
  • 1892 election: Weaver (Populist) received about 1{,}000{,}000 votes; Cleveland (Democrat) won; Harrison (Republican) was the other major candidate.
  • The Populists hoped to align with urban workers for greater political impact.

• 1892–1896 developments and decline:

  • Populists experienced some success in state legislatures and a few gubernatorial and congressional seats; nevertheless, continued two-party dominance limited third-party gains.
  • In 1896, Populists endorsed Bryan (Democrat) for president and kept their own VP candidate, Tom Watson, to preserve party identity; Bryan’s Cross of Gold stance aligned with Populist monetary aims.
  • 1896 election outcome: McKinley defeated Bryan; Bryan’s loss signaled limits of the Populist third-party strategy.
  • Reasons for Populist decline: (i) 1896 saw a consolidation of working-class support with Democrats; (ii) gold discoveries in the Yukon (Klondike, 1896–1899) reinforced gold standard; (iii) the looming Spanish-American War stimulated national economic growth and farm demand.

• 20.3 key figures and terms:

  • Omaha Platform, Weaver, Bryan, Watson, Bryan’s Cross of Gold speech.
  • The Populist-Democrat realignment and its effect on late-19th-century reform.
  • Klondike Gold Rush as a macroeconomic factor aiding the gold standard.
  • The Populist movement as a precursor to later Progressive reformers.

• 20.3 numerical highlights:

  • Populist membership: >2.5 imes 10^{6} (1.5M white + 1.0M Black).
  • Weaver vote in 1892: approx. 1 imes 10^{6}.
  • Bryan’s 1896 national vote tally: roughly 6.5 imes 10^{6}; McKinley about 7.1 imes 10^{6}.

• 20.3 cross-links to Oz allegory:

  • Some scholars argue Coxey’s Army (1894) and farmer revolts fed Baum’s imaginative seed for Dorothy’s journey; the scarecrow (farmer) and tin woodman (industrial worker) have been interpreted as symbols of populist constituencies; the yellow brick road signals shifting monetary policy toward bimetallism.
  • The Wizard’s impotence mirrors a federal government perceived as ineffective in solving the era’s economic woes.

• 20.4 Social and labor unrest in the eighteen nineties

• Economic depression and social upheaval:

  • The Depression of 1893–1894: a major contraction that deepened farmer and worker distress; unemployment peaked at 3 imes 10^{6}; urban areas faced homelessness and soup lines; rural areas faced debt and price declines.
  • Government response was weak; voters looked for relief beyond the two major parties; populist appeal grew among industrial workers and farmers.

• Coxey’s Army (1894):

  • Jacob Coxey led a march of unemployed Ohioans to Washington, seeking public works programs.
  • The march grew from ~100 to ~500 participants; participants were arrested for trespassing on Capitol grounds; Coxey and other leaders called for federal relief via public works.
  • The event highlighted federal government inaction and contributed to populist sympathy.

• Pullman Strike (1894):

  • Pullman Company reduced wages and laid off many workers; Pullman workers joined by Eugene V. Debs’s American Railway Union to refuse to handle trains with Pullman cars.
  • Federal troops intervened to operate trains to protect mail delivery; Debs refused to obey injunctions and was jailed for disobedience; the strike’s disruption weakened the American Railway Union and Debs as a political actor.
  • The strike illustrated the tension between labor activism and federal authority during economic distress.

• Dorothy and Oz allegory again (1894–1900):

  • Some scholars connect Baum’s Oz to contemporary political struggles; debates exist about the extent to which Oz represents populist critiques.
  • Possible readings: The yellow brick road as a metaphor for monetary reform; the Wizard as a symbol of political power that appears strong but is ineffective.
  • The narrative remains a cultural touchstone for discussions of populism and reform.

• The 1896 election and its aftermath (Populists and Bryan):

  • Republicans nominated McKinley on a platform of gold standard and protectionism; Democrats supported Bryan with strong calls for silver coinage.
  • Populists endorsed Bryan but kept their own VP, Tom Watson, to preserve party identity.
  • Outcome: McKinley won narrowly; Bryan carried strong support in farming regions but failed to break the two-party monopoly.
  • Aftermath: Populists largely dissolved as a distinct party; some policies (subtreasury ideas, direct election of senators) found new life in later Progressive reforms.

• 20.4 key figures and terms:

  • Coxey, Debs, Pullman, Keating-Owen Act context, Triangle Shirtwaist Fire later developments (see 21.3).

• 20.4 numerical highlights:

  • Unemployment peak: 3 imes 10^{6}; private and public responses varied by region.
  • Bryan’s 1896 vote totals: approximately 6.5 imes 10^{6}; McKinley approx. 7.1 imes 10^{6}.

21.1 Origins of the progressive spirit in America

• Core idea: muckraking journalism catalyzed the Progressive Era; progressivism encompassed diverse causes but shared common principles.

• Muckrakers and key figures:

  • Jacob Riis: How the Other Half Lives (1890) used photojournalism to reveal tenement conditions in NYC.
  • Ida Tarbell: Exposed Standard Oil monopolistic practices; built on Henry Demarest Lloyd’s Wealth Against Commonwealth (1894).
  • Lincoln Steffens: Investigated urban political corruption.
  • Ray Stannard Baker: Researched coal mine safety and working conditions.
  • Publications in McClure’s Magazine contributed to public awareness and reform pressure.

• Theodore Roosevelt and the label ‘muckraker’: Roosevelt co-opted and then criticized muckraking; he acknowledged their role yet distrusted certain policy directions, labeling them as reformers whose agendas could overwhelm the political process.

• Core features of progressivism (shared across diverse groups):

  • Perfection of democracy: expansion of suffrage to worthy citizens; restriction of participation by those deemed unfit (health, education, race).
  • Balance democracy with efficiency: reliance on science, technology, and professional expertise.
  • Regulation of the modern market economy: government as steward of social justice and reform; skepticism toward unbridled party politics.
  • Progressive impulse often rooted in grassroots activism, not solely elite initiatives.

• Conversation: The era’s progressivism reflected a belief that reform was needed to address rapid change while preventing moral and social decline.

• 21.1 key figures and terms:

  • Muckrakers, How the Other Half Lives, Tarbell, Steffens, Baker, Riis.
  • Theodore Roosevelt, Progressive self-image, the tension between reform impulses and political practicality.

• 21.1 numerical highlights:

  • Not many specific numeric data points in this section; emphasis on qualitative descriptions of reform movements.

21.2 Progressivism at the grassroots level

• Grassroots origins and examples:

  • Robert M. La Follette (Fighting Bob): Wisconsin Governor (1901–1906); promoted the Wisconsin Idea, hiring experts to draft policy; supported workman’s compensation, minimum wage, progressive taxation, direct election of US senators, and women’s suffrage.
  • Other reform efforts focused on safer working conditions, child labor restrictions, and anti-corruption campaigns in urban governance.

• Expanding democracy through direct democracy mechanisms:

  • Direct primary: allowed party members to vote directly for nominees; South Carolina (1896) adopted statewide direct primary; Florida (1901) first to use direct primary for the presidency.
  • Initiative: petition to place proposed laws on the ballot; first initiative in South Dakota (1898); by 1920, around 20 states had such provisions.
  • Referendum: allowed voters to approve or reject existing laws on the ballot; by 1932, several states had adopted this tool.
  • Recall: allowed voters to remove public officials via petition and vote; first in Oregon (1910); by 1932, adopted in multiple states.

• Federal-level reforms and the 17th Amendment:

  • Direct election of US senators, replacing state legislatures; championed by progressives, including Bryan; later ratified as the 17th Amendment (1913).

• Municipal reforms and governance innovations:

  • Galveston, Texas (1901) adopted a commission form of government after a devastating hurricane, reducing graft by separating city operations into specialized commissions (water, fire, police).
  • Staunton, Virginia (1908) adopted the city manager form to separate operations from electoral politics; the city manager (engineer/businessman) handles daily administration; aim to reduce political machine influence.
  • Today, the City Manager system is adopted by over 3{,}700 cities in the United States.

• Wisconsin Idea and La Follette’s impact:

  • La Follette’s policies shaped state governance and influenced national reform discussions.
  • He advanced labor rights, minimum wage, progressive taxes, and women’s suffrage; served as US Senator (1906–1925) and ran for president in 1924 on the Progressive Party ticket.

• Expertise and efficiency in administration:

  • Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management (1911) promoted efficiency via time-motion studies and standardization; management decisions centralized while workers executed tasks.
  • Taylorism linked to Progressive emphasis on efficiency; generated mixed reactions from workers (some benefited from productivity gains and lower prices; others resented loss of autonomy).

• 21.2 key figures and terms:

  • Robert La Follette; Wisconsin Idea; direct primary; initiative; referendum; recall; 17th Amendment; Galveston commission; City Manager; Taylorism.

• 21.2 numerical highlights:

  • City count adopting City Manager form: 3{,}700$$+ cities.
  • Wisconsin reforms included in the La Follette era (1901–1906) with broad policy outputs across labor, tax, and suffrage reforms.

• 21.2 connections to broader reform themes:

  • Move toward efficiency and expert governance as antidotes to political machine corruption.
  • Emphasis on expanding democracy but with a preference for technocratic administration.

21.3 Social justice and reform in the Progressive Era

• Social justice focus and key organizations:

  • Jane Addams, Lillian Wald, Ellen Gates Starr and the settlement house movement (late 1880s) provided social services, education, and health care; connected urban poor to broader political reform.
  • National Child Labor Committee (NCLC), established in 1904, advocated for labor legislation to ban child labor; highlighted alarming census data: in 1900, about one in six children aged 5–10 were working.
  • NCLC used Louis Hine for a decade-long photo campaign to raise awareness about child labor conditions.
  • Keating-Owen Child Labor Act (1912): prohibited interstate trade of goods produced with child labor; later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court; foundational for future reforms; 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act eventually banned interstate trade of child-produced goods and introduced minimum wage and maximum hours regulations.

• The Triangle Shirtwaist Company disaster (1911):

  • 146 garment workers, mainly young immigrant women, died; poor fire-safety practices and locked exits highlighted the need for workplace safety reforms.
  • The disaster helped catalyze the National Consumers League’s push for safety codes and labor protections.

• Prohibition movement and morality campaigns:

  • The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League linked reform with moral and Christian reform initiatives; saw prohibition as essential to addressing social problems like poverty and domestic violence.

• Summary of 21.3 implications:

  • Social justice reform during the Progressive Era extended beyond political modernization to address labor rights, child welfare, public health, and consumer protection.
  • Women’s activism and settlement houses played a central role in shaping social reform and advancing suffrage ambitions.
  • Keating-Owen and later Fair Labor Standards Act represented the long arc of labor regulation.

• 21.3 key figures and terms:

  • Jane Addams; Lillian Wald; Ellen Gates Starr; NCLC; Keating-Owen Act; Triangle Shirtwaist Fire; WCTU; Anti-Saloon League.

• 21.3 numerical highlights:

  • 1900 census data: one in six children (ages 5–10) in the workforce.
  • NCLC’s decade-long campaign; Keating-Owen Act (1916) and later legislative milestones (1938 FLSA).

• Overall connections across the Progressive Era:

  • Muckraking journalism exposed social injustices and spurred reform; grassroots activism translated into direct democracy reforms and state/federal policy changes.
  • The era’s reform agenda combined political, economic, social, and moral dimensions, culminating in broader expectations for government to regulate markets, protect workers, and expand democratic participation.

Cross-cutting themes and final reflections

• The Gilded Age politics narrative centers on the tension between rapid economic growth, political corruption, and reform pressures from farmers, workers, and urban reformers.

• The Populist movement highlighted a coalition of farmers seeking monetary relief, railroad regulation, and broader direct political power; its platform laid groundwork for later Progressive reforms.

• The Progressive Era reframed the role of government as a regulator and facilitator of democracy, efficiency, and social justice, while continuing to negotiate the balance between federal power and local autonomy.

• The Oz allegory and other popular culture references illustrate how political discourse of the era shaped popular imagination about reform and governance.

• Key takeaways for exam readiness:

  • Understand the causes of political corruption in the Gilded Age and how civil service reform sought to address patronage.
  • Explain the debates over tariffs and monetary policy (gold standard vs silver) and how these issues affected farmers and workers.
  • Describe the rise of farmer-based political movements (Grange, Greenback Party, Farmers' Alliance, Populist Party) and their impact on late 19th-century politics.
  • Recognize the emergence of the Progressive Era, muckrakers, and grassroots reforms aimed at expanding democracy and improving efficiency and social welfare.
  • Identify pivotal laws and reforms (Pendleton Act, ICC, 17th Amendment, direct primary, initiative/referendum/recall, NCLC, Keating-Owen Act, Triangle Shirtwaist reforms) and their long-term significance.

• Connections to later history:

  • Some Progressive reforms were precursors to 20th-century regulatory state and expand voting rights.
  • The end of the Populist insurgency led to a reorganization of political identities, with reformist ideas persisting in the Democratic and Republican parties and evolving into the modern progressive movement.

• Sources and attribution:

  • OpenStax history text, chapter material on the Gilded Age and Progressive Era; includes primary documentary excerpts and historical interpretations cited in the narrative.