A Definitive Guide to Biblical Figures of Speech: Association, Personification, and Idioms

Statements of Association or Relation (Metonymy and Synecdoche)

In the study of various literary genres, figures of speech play a vital role. One primary category involves statements of association or relation, which include metonymy and synecdoche. Metonymy is defined as a figure of speech in which one noun is substituted for another with which it is closely associated. This is a common linguistic tool; for instance, a reporter might state that "the White House vetoed a bill." Literally, the building did nothing, but the noun "White House" is substituted for the noun "President" because of their close physical and functional relationship. Biblical examples include Luke $16$, where the text refers to listening to "Moses and the prophets." Since these individuals were deceased at the time, the term is a metonymy for their written works. Similarly, in Galatians $6$, Paul boasts in the "cross of our Lord Jesus Christ." The wooden structure itself is insignificant, but is substituted for the work of Jesus, including his bearing of sin and enduring the wrath of God, which occurred upon it.

Synecdoche is distinct from metonymy in that it involves a part being substituted for the whole or vice versa. In casual or crude language, one might say "get your butt in here," referring to the whole person by mentioning only one part. A nautical example is the phrase "all hands on deck," where "hands" represents the entire personhood of the crew members. Scripturally, Isaiah and Paul describe the "feet of those who bring good news" as beautiful. This does not literally refer to the anatomy of the feet, which do not speak or herald the gospel, but uses the feet—the part of the preacher that arrives at a location—to represent the arrival of the herald and their message. Another example is found in the Lord's Prayer, where Jesus instructs followers to pray for "daily bread." In the culture of ancient Israel, bread was the staple food, representing all physical food. Furthermore, food serves as a synecdoche for all the physical necessities of life for which a believer depends on God.

Statements Stressing a Personal Dimension (Personification and Anthropomorphism)

Another category of figurative language involves statements that stress a personal dimension, namely personification and anthropomorphism. Personification occurs when human characteristics are attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. In the book of Proverbs, wisdom is personified as a woman, "Lady Wisdom," who cries aloud in the streets and raises her voice in the market. As an abstract concept, wisdom cannot literal cry or speak, but it is personified to illustrate its call to the reader. Similarly, Psalm $68$ asks why "many-peaked mountains" look with hatred, though mountains possess no eyes or emotions. Psalm $96$ depicts fields exulting and trees of the forest singing for joy. While modern readers might recognize such imagery as similar to the sentient "Ents" in the Lord of the Rings, in the natural world, trees do not sing; they are personified to demonstrate creation's response to God.

Anthropomorphism is a specific type of personification where human characteristics are attributed to God. According to John $4:24$, God is spirit and does not possess a physical body of flesh and bone. Because humans are limited, finite creatures, anthropomorphic language is used to bridge the conceptual gap between humanity and the divine. Some groups, such as Mormons, have historically misunderstood this concept, interpreting the Bible to mean that God is literally a giant physical person. However, when scripture mentions that the "eyes of the Lord" range throughout the earth, it communicates God’s omniscience and awareness, not that he possesses physical eyeballs. Psalm $98$ refers to God's "right hand" and "holy arm" winning the victory, symbols meant to convey God's personal strength and action. Likewise, descriptions of Jesus being "seated at the right hand of the throne of God" utilize anthropomorphic and symbolic language to describe divine authority and presence rather than a literal piece of furniture in a physical room.

Definition and Cultural Context of Idiomatic Statements

Idiomatic statements, or idioms, are groups of words established by usage that possess a meaning not deducible from the individual words themselves. One cannot simply "add up" the definitions of the words to find the meaning; the phrase must be interpreted non-literally as a whole. Every culture uses idioms. For example, a Chinese idiom states, "I have eaten more salt than you have rice." While it sounds like a culinary comparison, it identifies that the speaker has more life experience than the listener, based on the fact that salt is used in tiny pinches while rice is consumed in large quantities. In Malaysia, the phrase telinga panas literally means "hot ears" but refers to receiving a harsh earful or being shouted at.

Malay culture also features various idioms involving the word for feet, kaki. Kaki tangan (feet and hands) refers to an employee. Kaki ayam (chicken feet) refers to someone walking barefoot. Kaki lima (fifth foot) refers to a hawker or street vendor whose cart has $4$ legs, making the person the "fifth foot." The term anak emas (gold child) refers to a favored child. Another Malay saying suggests that "if there is no wind, the trees don't move," which serves as an idiom for the idea that there is some truth to a circulating rumor. Understanding these requires immersion in the culture, as a literal translation fails to convey the intended meaning.

Literary and Practical Examples of Literal Misinterpretation

Idioms are frequently embedded in specialized activities like baseball. Phrases such as "turn $2$," "swing for the fence," "around the horn," "caught looking," "on deck," "in the hole," and "southpaw" (referring to a left-handed pitcher) are incomprehensible to those unfamiliar with the sport's idiomatic language. Literature often highlights the humor or confusion caused by literalism, such as the Amelia Bedelia series. Similarly, the character Deputy Dan, operating under Sheriff Digby, frequently takes idioms literally with comedic effect.

When the sheriff tells Deputy Dan to "answer the door," Dan says "hello" to the wooden door rather than opening it. When the sheriff says he "smells trouble," Dan sniffs the air and finds nothing, failing to realize it refers to sensing danger. Instructed to "hop over" to the bank to "check" for clues, Dan literally hops all the way and uses a crayon to put checkmarks on the floors, walls, ceiling, and furniture. Told to "guard the bank doors" and "keep them covered," he brings sheets from his house to physically cover them. When told to "pick up his horse," he fails because the animal is too heavy. Finally, when told to "step on it" (referring to speed), he gets off his horse and stamps on the ground, inadvertently raising a dust cloud that causes nearby bank robbers to choke, leading to their arrest.

Recognizing and Interpreting Biblical Idioms

Recognizing idioms in scripture is essential for proper hermeneutics, yet it is difficult because they cannot be translated word-for-word. There are two primary ways to detect a biblical idiom. First, frequency is a key indicator. When a phrase or concept appears consistently across different contexts, it suggests an established idiomatic usage. For example, in both the Old and New Testaments, "sleep" is frequently used as an idiom and a euphemism for death. This is seen in Matthew $27$, where tombs were opened and saints who had "fallen asleep" were raised, and in John $11$, where Jesus tells his disciples that Lazarus is "asleep" so that he may "wake him." The disciples initially misunderstand the idiom, leading Jesus to clarify that he meant death.

Additional instances of this idiom include the account of Stephen’s martyrdom in Acts $7$, where he "fell asleep" while being stoned. In Acts $13$, David is said to have "fallen asleep" and undergone decay. Paul uses the idiom in $1$ Corinthians $7$ regarding a woman whose husband "sleeps" (is dead), and in $1$ Corinthians $11$ regarding those who died after taking the Lord's Supper unworthily. In $1$ Corinthians $15$, Paul mentions that of $500$ witnesses to the resurrection, some remain alive while others have "fallen asleep." He also describes the return of Christ by saying "we will not all sleep," referring to some believers being alive at his coming. This idiom is also found in $1$ Thessalonians and $2$ Peter, where writers refer to "fathers" who have "fallen asleep."

Specific Biblical Idioms: Death as Sleep and Comparative Love as Hate

Second, an idiom is identified if the literal translation does not make sense in the immediate context or within the broader scope of scriptural truth. A prominent example is found in Malachi $1$ and Romans $9$, where God states, "Jacob I have loved, but Esau I have hated." Given that other scriptures state God "so loved the world" (John $3:16$), the word "hate" here is likely an idiom for "loving less" or non-preference in a specific covenantal context. This linguistic pattern is seen in Genesis $29$, where it says Jacob loved Rachel more than Leah, while the Lord saw that Leah was "hated." Jacob and Leah had $6$ children together, implying a relationship more complex than literal hatred, but in that culture, linguistic preference for one was expressed by calling the other "hated."

This is further illustrated in Deuteronomy $21$. The King James Version translates this literally as a man having a "beloved" and a "hated" wife. Modern translations, seeking clarity, often render this as a wife who is "loved" and one who is "unloved." Even if the firstborn son belongs to the "hated" wife, the father must recognize him as the firstborn. Proverbs $13:24$ also employs this idiom, stating that he who "withholds his rod hates his son." This likely means the parent loves the son less than the parent who provides diligent discipline. Thus, translating these as "loved less" prevents the misunderstanding that literal malice or hatred is being commanded or described.

Idiomatic Expressions and Quantifiers in Scriptural Context

Scripture is filled with various other idioms that are often rendered literally in some translations but should be understood figuratively. In Genesis $32$, the phrase "sand of the sea" is used to mean "very numerous." In Genesis $45$, the description of Joseph’s "compassion growing warm" (ESV) is an idiom for being deeply stirred or overcome with emotion. Falling on someone's "neck" is an idiom for throwing one's arms around them in an embrace. In Joshua $8:17$, the statement that "not a man was left" in Ai or Bethel likely means that all fighting-age men went out to battle, not that the city was literally devoid of every single human being. In Judges $15:8$, Samson striking enemies "hip and thigh" means he did so ruthlessly or viciously.

Further idioms include "the Lord did not let his word fall to the ground," meaning the word was not proven false and did not fail. In $1$ Samuel $14$, Jonathan's eyes becoming "bright" after eating honey refers to his strength being renewed. Saul’s promise that "not one hair on his head shall fall to the ground" means that no harm will come to him. A rather crude idiom in $1$ Samuel $25:22$ (KJV) refers to males as those who "pisseth against the wall." The Queen of Sheba being left with "no more breath in her" ($1$ Kings $10$) means she was overwhelmed or awestruck. The New Testament contains idioms like "faith to move mountains" (great faith), "breathed his last" (died), and "bowels of compassion" (heartfelt pity or mercy).

Additionally, the words "all" or "whole" are often used idiomatically as universal quantifiers that denote a large quantity rather than an absolute total without exception. In $1$ Kings $10$, it is said the "whole earth" sought the presence of Solomon, and in Luke $2$, Caesar Augustus decreed that "all the world" should be registered. These refer to many people or the known Roman world, respectively. Matthew records that "all Jerusalem" was troubled by Herod (Matthew $2$) and that "all Judea" went to be baptized by John (Matthew $3$), meaning people from all over those regions. Finally, in $1$ John $2$, Christ as the propitiation for the "sins of the whole world" may be an idiom used in a Jewish context to include Gentiles. Recognizing these figures of speech is essential to avoiding the "wrong path" of literalistic misinterpretation.