Biological Approaches to Criminology: Theories, Factors, and Implications

Evolution of Biological Criminological Theories

• Early Perspectives and Shift to Scientific Understanding:
  • Early criminogenic theories, which posited biology as the sole cause of crime, have largely been discredited and fallen out of favor.
  • While genetic programming (nature) exists, changes in diet and lifestyle (nurture) can significantly influence an individual's "destiny."
  • Phrenology (Craniology): Introduced by Franz Joseph Gall, this theory represented a critical shift from prevalent theological explanations of behavior towards a more scientific understanding.
  • Positivism and 19th-Century Biological Explanations: Biological explanations gained popularity in the $19^{th}$ century with the rise of positivism.
    • Cesare Lombroso: Developed the concept of "born criminals," identifying "primitive atavistic anomalies" as indicators of criminality.
    • Raffaele Garofalo: Also believed that specific physical traits, such as a lower degree of sensibility to physical pain, could indicate a criminal nature.

Body Types (Somatotypes) and Their Historical Associations

• This approach categorized individuals into different body types:
  • Endomorph: Generally round and soft.
  • Mesomorph: Muscular and athletic.
  • Ectomorph: Lean and fragile.
• Specific Somatotype Example ("Somatotype 117"):
  • Described as "Walking Sticks" – fragile, stretched-out creatures with an extremely high surface exposure in proportion to their mass.
  • Extremely rare, with an incidence of $2$ per $10,000$ people.
  • Individuals with this somatotype are seen as biologically overexposed, where normal social life can lead to chronic overstimulation.
  • Hebephrenic psychopathy is suggested as a natural response to such a situation.
  • This somatotype is more common in mental hospitals than in the general population, typically diagnosed as hebephrenic schizophrenia.

Historical Controversies and Ethical Concerns

• Scientific Racism: Historically, biological theories have been misused to support racist ideologies.
• Eugenics: A movement that advocated for selective breeding to "improve" the human population, often leading to ethically questionable practices like forced sterilization (e.g., mentioned Eugenics Board of Alberta).

Modern Genetic and Environmental Influences

• Twin Studies:
  • Compare Monozygotic (MZ) (identical) and Dizygotic (DZ) (fraternal) twins.
  • If reared together, both MZ and DZ twins share $100\%$ of their social environment.
  • MZ twins share $100\%$ of the $1\%$ of DNA that accounts for variation in characteristics.
  • DZ twins share $50\%$ of the $1\%$ of DNA that accounts for variation in characteristics.
  • Concordance: A measure used in twin studies to assess the likelihood that if one twin has a trait, the other twin will also have it.
• Adoption Studies:
  • Designed to address limitations and differences found in earlier twin studies.
  • These studies compare the traits, behaviors, or characteristics of adopted twins (or individuals) with those of their biological parents, who did not raise them.
• Alcohol Use Disorder, Genetics, and Environment:
  • Research indicates that offenders with alcohol use disorder are more prone to committing violent offenses.
  • Other offenders (without alcohol use disorder) are statistically more likely to engage in property offenses.
• Prenatal and Neonatal Factors:
  • Poverty: Often considered a contributing factor to future criminality.
  • Maternal Alcohol Consumption: Children whose mothers consume alcohol during pregnancy may develop Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), leading to developmental and behavioral issues.
  • Brain Injuries during Birth: Injuries suffered during or shortly after childbirth can result in lifelong behavioral problems.

Brain Structure, Function, and Biochemical Conditions

• Brain Injuries:
  • Any damage to the brain can lead to changes in behavior.
  • Numerous studies employing imaging techniques have revealed distinct differences in brain function and structure between non-criminals and various offender populations.
  • Example (Charles Whitman, 1968): This individual killed his wife, mother, and $14$ others, and wounded $24$ people. An autopsy revealed a malignant brain tumor, and he had previously reported experiencing urges to kill and received psychiatric help, illustrating how brain pathology can manifest in violent behavior.
  • Epigenetics: This field, though not detailed, is mentioned in the context of brain activity and criminal behavior, referring to heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence.
• Biochemical Conditions and Crime:
  • Vitamin Deficiency: Lack of essential vitamins can affect brain function and behavior.
  • Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar levels can lead to irritability, confusion, and aggressive behavior.
  • Hormonal Issues: Imbalances in hormones can influence mood and behavior.
  • Allergies: Certain allergic reactions are hypothesized to affect neurological function.
  • Environmental Contaminants: Exposure to toxins (e.g., lead) can cause neurological damage and behavioral problems.
• Neurotransmitters and Brain Chemistry:
  • Research suggests a link between genetic predisposition for violence and alterations in brain chemistry and the functionality of neurotransmitters.
  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that facilitate communication between nerve cells, being released by one cell and received and acted upon by another.
  • Serotonin: Acts as a behavioral inhibitor and plays a crucial role in regulating aggressive-impulsive behavior.
  • Dopamine: Associated with creating pleasurable sensations and influencing motivation and reward systems.

Sociobiology and its Criticisms

• Core Concept: Sociobiology posits that human behavior is controlled by an innate, fundamental need to survive. It views biology, environment, and learning as interdependent factors influencing behavior.
• Evolutionary Link: This theory suggests that biological predispositions developed during earlier stages of human evolution continue to color contemporary criminal activity.
• Criticisms of Sociobiology:
  • Oversimplification: Fails to adequately convey the significant influence of culture, social learning, and unique individual experiences on human behavior.
  • Lack of Evidence: There is no credible scientific evidence to substantiate the existence of purely genetically based tendencies for complex social behaviors like criminality.
  • Ethical Concerns: Carries the risk of leading to the labeling and stigmatization of powerless minorities by attributing their circumstances to biological predispositions.
  • Cross-Species Generalization: Lacks a sound scientific basis for applying findings from animal studies directly to human behavior, as human social structures and cognitive abilities are far more complex.

Policy Implications of Biological Explanations

• Biological theories of crime causation pose unique and significant challenges for policymakers.
• Potential Negative Outcomes of Sole Reliance: Exclusive dependence on biological theories of crime could lead to controversial and ethically problematic policy outcomes:
  • Abortion of "Defective Fetuses": Interventions based on perceived genetic predispositions to criminality.
  • Capital Punishment over Rehabilitation: Prioritizing punitive measures over efforts to rehabilitate offenders, assuming an inherent, unchangeable biological flaw.
  • Sterilization: Implementing programs to prevent individuals deemed "ge
    n
    etically predisposed" to criminality from reproducing.