John Stuart Mill: Liberty and Utilitarianism
Historical Setting: 19th Century England
Monarchy: While a monarch (Queen Victoria, following George III, George IV, and William IV) was still in place, its power became increasingly limited throughout the 19th century, especially under Queen Victoria (who ascended at age ). The monarch retained some control over ministerial appointments and noble titles but was fading into the background.
Parliament's Rise: The legislative branch, Parliament, became dominant. The English parliamentary system was representative but differed from the American system.
Two Bodies: Like the US, Parliament had two bodies:
House of Lords: Entry was primarily hereditary through noble titles, or by being granted a title by the monarch. High-ranking Anglican clergy also formed a part of the House of Lords.
House of Commons: Members were voted in by electors.
Limited Suffrage and Representation: In the 19th century, the House of Commons was dominated by a land-owning elite due to an old system of representation that disproportionately favored country gentry over urban centers.
When Mill was born, voting was limited to landowners. Out of a population of approximately million, only about men could vote.
Voting was public; there was no secret ballot, as voters were expected to defend their choices.
Electoral Reforms During Mill's Life:
1832 Reform: Increased the number of electors to about one in five adult males. This empowered the middle class (industrialists, artisans, professionals).
1867 Reform: Further lowered property qualifications. By , all adult male householders could vote, though women and the lower classes remained disenfranchised, and the secret ballot was still absent.
Industrial Revolution: This period saw a rise in manufacturing, a significant increase in urbanization and city expansion, and the emergence of a working class with associated inequalities, often depicted in Charles Dickens's novels.
Victorian Age: Named after Queen Victoria, this era was characterized by strong societal expectations and a demand for conformity, particularly among the middle and upper classes, which directly impacted Mill's personal life.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Personal Life
Birth: Born on May , , in Pentonville, London, into a middle-class family.
Father, James Mill: A Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian who moved to London at age . Initially a financially insecure writer, journalist, and editor, he later became an employee of the British East India Company, securing a comfortable middle-class life for the family.
Note: The family name is Mill (M-I-L-L), not Mills.
Mother, Harriet Burrow: Mill was not close to his mother, and their relationship later suffered a significant rift over his personal life.
Harriet Taylor: Mill met Harriet Taylor in his twenties. He was intellectually and personally drawn to her. A major societal issue in Victorian England was that Harriet Taylor was married to John Taylor.
This intense platonic (by all available evidence) intellectual partnership caused scandal. Harriet Taylor eventually set terms, confirming her marriage and motherhood while continuing her intellectual relationship with Mill. This arrangement lasted years.
After her husband, John Taylor, died in , Mill and Harriet Taylor married in , nearly two years later. This still caused further scandal and a break with much of their family and friends, leading them to move out of London.
Harriet Taylor had a profound influence on Mill's thinking, particularly regarding women's rights, and there is evidence she co-authored some of his works.
Death of Harriet Taylor: She died of lung consumption in November in Avignon, South of France, after only seven years of marriage.
Later Life: Mill bought a house in Avignon and split his time between France and England. Harriet's daughter, Helen Taylor, became Mill's assistant and aide until his death.
Mill's Death: Mill died in Avignon in and is buried there next to Harriet.
John Stuart Mill: Education and Career
Education: Mill received a rigorous, strict, and intellectually disciplined homeschooling from his father, James Mill, with assistance from Jeremy Bentham.
He began reading Greek at age and Latin at age .
Despite his advanced education, he refused to attend university because he would have been required to take Anglican orders, and the Church of England controlled higher education.
At age , Mill experienced a "mental crisis," from which he recovered upon realizing his capacity for emotion was not dead, indicating a shift from purely rational development.
Public Intellectual: Mill was a prominent public intellectual, speaking out on critical social and political issues of his time.
British East India Company: Like his father, Mill worked as a secretary for the British East India Company. This provided a stable income and allowed him time for his intellectual pursuits. He retired in with a pension.
Journalism and Editing: He wrote for and edited various newspapers and journals.
Lord Rector of St. Andrews University: In , he was elected Lord Rector of the prestigious St. Andrews University in Scotland by the students (an honorary position).
Member of Parliament: From to , Mill represented the City of Westminster constituency in London. He was recruited rather than actively campaigning, and while he contributed to electoral reforms, he was not disappointed when he lost re-election in . His efforts contributed to making elections more representative.
Introduction to Utilitarianism
Definition: Utilitarianism is an ethical and political philosophy/theory. It connects ethics and politics, aligning with political idealism over realism.
Key Advocates: The most famous early advocates were James Mill (John Stuart Mill's father) and Jeremy Bentham.
Jeremy Bentham's Auto-Icon: Upon his death, Bentham requested his body be preserved and displayed at University College London, which resulted in his "auto-icon" – his skeletal remains stuffed with straw and dressed in his clothes, topped with a wax head (his mummified actual head is kept separately).
Core Concept: Utility: Utilitarianism focuses on utility, which is defined by the amount of pleasure and pain an action causes.
Happiness as Pleasure and Pain: Happiness is defined universally as the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain, a common ground for all human beings despite differing beliefs.
Moral and Political Goal: The aim of all moral and political decisions should be to create "the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people." This principle is known as social utility.
Criticisms (Acknowledged but not Detailed): The theory has criticisms, but these are set aside for the immediate discussion.
Impact on Concepts like Justice and Rights: For utilitarians, concepts like justice, rights (e.g., free speech, right to bear arms), and liberty are not based on abstract, metaphysical ideas (like Plato's Form of the Good or Locke's natural rights given by a creator).
Instead, their validity depends on social utility: Does granting a right or enacting a law increase society's pleasure or reduce its pain? If yes, it is valid; if no, it is not.
Mill's Stance: Mill's work "Utilitarianism" states: "Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." While Mill had some disagreements with Bentham and his father (e.g., on the quality of pleasures and pains), he fundamentally adhered to the principle of maximizing happiness.
Guidance for "On Liberty": This utilitarian background will inform Mill's arguments in his most famous work, "On Liberty."