Political Challenges to Liberalism: Reflecting the Will of the People

The Will of the People and Democratic Foundations

• Central Inquiry: To what extent do liberal governments reflect the will of the people?
• Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state.
• Direct Democracy:
  • Every citizen actively participates in the decision-making process.
  • Every citizen’s voice is considered important.
  • Practiced first in ancient Athens.
  • Generally seen as practical only for small populations.
  • Requires people to meet, discuss, and vote on specific issues.
• Instruments of Direct Democracy:
  • Initiatives: Prominent in the United States. A group of citizens draws up a petition. If the petition receives enough signatures, a public vote is held on the matter.
  • Referendums or Plebiscites: These literally mean "the common people speak." All citizens vote to either accept or reject a proposed piece of legislation.
  • Recalls: A majority of voters chooses to remove an elected official or government from power, usually initiated through a petition.
• Representative Democracy:
  • Citizens elect governing officials to make decisions on their behalf.
  • Common features to ensure accountability include:
    • Independent Media.
    • Periodic Elections.
    • Multiple Political Parties.
    • Separation of Powers.
    • Independent Judiciary.
    • Rule of Law.

Canada’s Parliamentary Democracy

• Responsible Government: Following a British tradition, the executive branch (Prime Minister and Cabinet) is dependent on the support of the legislative branch. It is a system built on accountability to Parliament and constituents.
• Non-confidence Vote: A process used if the government is seen as not being accountable, potentially leading to the government’s fall.
• Party Solidarity: Requires all party members to vote with the party.
  • Free Vote: A rare instance where party leadership frees members from the obligation to vote with the party.
  • Consequences: If an MP refuses to follow the party vote outside of a free vote, they are usually forced out of the party or leave voluntarily.
• Electoral System: Single-member constituencies.
  • The nation is divided into electoral districts called ridings.
  • First-Past-The-Post (FPTP): Often compared to a horse race where the candidate with the most votes wins. It calculates eligible voters, likely turnout, and the number of votes needed to win.
  • 2013 Edmonton Mayor Election Example:
    • Don Iveson: $99,249$ votes.
    • Karen Leibovici: $29,566$ votes.
    • Kerry Diotte: $24,719$ votes.
    • Gordon Ward: $1,671$ votes.
    • Kristine Acielo: $929$ votes.
    • Joshua Semotiuk: $557$ votes.
• Bicameral Legislature:
  • House of Commons: Consists of $338$ seats (increased from $308$). Representatives are called Members of Parliament (MPs). They debate issues, pass bills, and comprise the Government and Opposition.
  • The Senate: Consists of $105$ seats. Senators are appointed by the Prime Minister rather than elected. They must approve bills from the House of Commons and can suggest amendments or reject bills.
• Structure of Government:
  • Legislative Branch: Parliament (Senate and House of Commons).
  • Executive Branch: Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers.
  • Judicial Branch: Supreme Court and lower courts.
  • Governed by the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

United States Republican System

• Republic: A sovereign nation that has no king or queen.
• Key Differences from Canada:
  • U.S. Senators are elected; Canadian Senators are appointed.
  • The U.S. President (Executive) does not sit in Congress (Legislative); the Canadian Prime Minister sits in Parliament.
• Congress (Bicameral System):
  • Senate: Provides equal representation with $100$ representatives ($2$ per state). Elections occur every $6$ years.
  • House of Representatives: Based on representation by population. Consists of $435$ representatives, each representing a congressional district. Elections occur every $2$ years.
• Executive Branch (The Presidency):
  • President: Leader of the country and Commander in Chief of the military. Duties include recommending legislation, convening Congress for extraordinary occasions, and granting reprieves or pardons.
  • Vice President: President of the Senate; takes over if the President is unable to serve.
  • Appointments: The President appoints ambassadors, Supreme Court justices, and federal judges with Senate approval.
  • State of the Union: An annual address given by the President to Congress.
• Veto Power: The President has ten days to act on a bill passed by Congress:
  1. Sign the bill into law.
  2. Veto the bill.
  3. Do nothing (If Congress is in session, it becomes law after $10$ days; if Congress adjourns, it is a "pocket veto" and the bill is defeated).
• Judicial Branch: The Supreme Court decides on the meaning of laws and their constitutionality; it serves as the final step in the system of Checks and Balances.
• The Electoral College:
  • The President is not elected by Popular Vote.
  • Each state has "electors" (totaling the number of seats in Congress). If a candidate wins the most electoral votes in a state, they typically win all that state's seats.
  • 2008 Results: Obama vs. McCain (Obama victory).
  • Electoral Map Values: California ($55$), Texas ($34$), New York ($31$), Florida ($27$), etc.

Alternative Democratic Models and Challenges

• Proportional Representation:
  • Used in countries like Sweden.
  • Citizens vote directly for a party; seats are assigned based on the percentage of popular support.
  • Benefits minority parties and leads to multi-party systems where coalition governments are common.
• Consensus Decision Making:
  • A group shares ideas and concerns to find a resolution everyone can accept.
  • Nunavut and Northwest Territories: These are consensus governments. Nunavut has no political parties; each MLA (Member of the Legislative Assembly) votes as they see fit.
• Challenges to Democratic Systems:
  • Electoral Participation: Voter turnout is declining.
  • Elite Theory of Democracy: The argument that an elite, better-qualified group should make decisions because the general public is not well-informed.
  • Lobbying: Interest groups attempt to influence policy by representing specific perspectives and donating to campaigns.
  • Practicality vs. Public Opinion: Situations where necessary decisions contradict public will.
    • LRT Expansion (Edmonton): Seen as environmentally friendly but often opposed by those living next to the proposed tracks.
    • Homeless Shelters: Necessary for survival in cold climates, but often face "Not In My Backyard" (NIMBY) opposition.
• Ethics and the Common Good: Questions whether the will of the people is always "right" regarding issues like same-sex marriage, the death penalty, tax increases, or trying youth as adults.

Authoritarianism

• Definition: A form of government where authority is vested in an elite group that may not rule in the interests of the people.
• Forms of Authoritarianism:
  • Oligarchies: Power rests with a small elite segment, often powerful families (e.g., historical and modern Russia).
  • One-Party States: Only one party is permitted to form the government (e.g., Communist states). There is an absence of choice.
  • Military Dictatorships (Juntas): Political power resides with military leadership; they are often unwilling to give up power.
  • Monarchies: Rule by a king or queen.
• Techniques of Authoritarian Governments:
  • Vision: Having a specific vision of what the nation should be under the leader.
  • Propaganda: Used to gain and maintain support.
  • Controlled Participation: Making the population feel they are contributing to distract from a lack of real power.
  • Directing Dissent: Providing a scapegoat or enemy for the people to blame.
  • Terror: Implementing violence or fear to maintain control.