Academic Study Notes: Vedic Literature, Vyakarana, Jyotisha, and Sanskrit Classics, and Indian Philosphy, and Jurisprudence

Veda: Introduction and General Concepts

  • Definition and Etymology:

    • The word "Veda" is derived from the Sanskrit root Vid (to know) combined with the Ghan suffix, meaning "Knowledge."

    • Veda is also described as a "Heap of Knowledge" or a "Collection of Knowledge."

    • Acharya Vishvamitra (Rig-Pratishakhya): "Veda corresponds to those texts through which Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha (the four goals of human life or Purushartha Chatushtaya) are understood."

    • Acharya Sayana (Taittiriya Samhita): "A book that suggests extra-sensory or divine means for obtaining the desired and avoiding the undesired is a Veda."

  • Four Vedas:

    1. Rigveda: The oldest and first text of Vedic literature. It is worshiped (abhyarhyatam) among all. The word Rik or Rich refers to hymns of praise (stutipara mantra). Structure includes 10 Mandalas and 1028 Suktas.

    2. Yajurveda: Primarily a book of rituals (Karmakanda), used by the Adhvaryu priest. The word Yajush refers to prose/poetic formulas for sacrifice. It follows two traditions: Brahma (Krishna Yajurveda) and Aditya (Shukla Yajurveda).

    3. Samaveda: The essence of the Vedas. Lord Krishna in the Gita states, "Of the Vedas, I am the Samaveda." It translates to "Hymns set to music" (Sam = Melody). It is the Veda of worship (Upasana).

    4. Atharvaveda: Named after the Atharva sages, relating to the knowledge of stabilizing the mind and chants for protection. It mentions internal spiritual vision.

  • Classification of Vedic Literature:

    • Acharya: Rigveda (Paila), Yajurveda (Vaishampayana), Samaveda (Jaimini), Atharvaveda (Sumantu).

    • Main Deity: Rigveda (Agni), Yajurveda (Vayu), Samaveda (Aditya), Atharvaveda (Soma).

    • Ritvij (Priest): Rigveda (Hota), Yajurveda (Adhvaryu), Samaveda (Udgata), Atharvaveda (Brahma).

    • Upaveda: Rigveda (Ayurveda), Yajurveda (Dhanurveda), Samaveda (Gandharvaveda), Atharvaveda (Sarpaveda/Arthaveda).

  • Ashta-Vikriti (Eight variations of Vedic recitation):

    • Jata, Mala, Shikha, Rekha, Dhvaja, Danda, Ratha, Ghana.

Rigveda Samhita: Structural Details

  • Structural Division (Two methods):

    • Ashtaka Method: 8 Ashtakas, 64 Adhyayas, 2024 Vargas, 10580 Mantras.

    • Mandala Method: 10 Mandalas, 85 Anuvakas, 1017 + 11 (Valakhilya) = 1028 Suktas, 10552 Mantras.

  • Mandala Rishis:

    • 1st: Madhuchhanda, Medhatithi, Dirghatama.

    • 2nd: Gritsamada.

    • 3rd: Vishvamitra.

    • 4th: Vamadeva.

    • 5th: Atri.

    • 6th: Bharadvaja.

    • 7th: Vashistha.

    • 8th: Kanva, Bhrigu, Angirasa (Includes 11 Valakhilya Suktas).

    • 9th: Soma, Pavamana.

    • 10th: Vitta, Vimada, Shraddha, Kamayani.

  • Important Texts and Commentators:

    • Shakhas: Shakala, Bashkala.

    • Brahmanas: Aitareya, Shankhayana (Kaushitaki).

    • Aranyakas: Aitareya, Shankhayana.

    • Upanishads: Aitareya, Kaushitaki.

    • Commentators: Skandasvami (Oldest), Madhavabhatta, Venkata-Madhava, Sayana (Vedarthaprakasha), Anandatirtha.

    • Significant Suktas: Purusha Sukta (10.9010.90), Hiranyagarbha Sukta (10.12110.121), Nasadiya Sukta (10.12910.129), Vak Sukta, Jnana Sukta, Aksha Sukta.

Yajurveda Samhita: Structural Details

  • Shukla Yajurveda:

    • Madhyandina (Vajasaneyi): 40 Adhyayas, 303 Anuvakas, 1975 Mantras.

    • Kanva: 40 Adhyayas, 328 Anuvakas, 2086 Mantras.

    • Brahmana: Shatapatha Brahmana.

    • Upanishads: Isha, Brihadaranyaka.

  • Krishna Yajurveda:

    • Taittiriya: 7 Kandas, 44 Prapathakas, 631 Anuvakas.

    • Maitrayani: 4 Kandas, 54 Prapathakas, 3144 Mantras.

    • Katha (Kathaka): 5 Khandas, 40 Sthanakas, 843 Anuvakas.

    • Kapishthala Katha: 6 Ashtakas, 48 Adhyayas.

    • Brahmana: Taittiriya Brahmana.

    • Upanishads: Taittiriya, Katha, Shvetashvatara, Maitrayani, Mahanarayana.

Samaveda Samhita: Structural Details

  • Archika Samhita: Purvarchika and Uttararchika.

  • Gana Samhita (Singing): Gramegeya (Veya-gana), Aranyageya, Uhana-gana, Uhya-gana.

  • Purvarchika: 4 Kandas, 6 Adhyayas (Prapathaka).

  • Uttararchika: 9 Prapathakas, 1225 Mantras, 400 Suktas.

  • Sama-Vikara (Phonetic modifications in chant): 6 types - Vikara, Vishleshana, Vikarsana, Abhyasa, Virama, Stobha.

  • Stomas: 9 types - Trivrit, Panchadasha, Saptadasha, Ekavimsha, Chaturvimsha, Trinava, Trayastrimsha, Chatushchatvarimsha, Ashtachatvarimsha.

  • Samagana Components: (1) Prastava, (2) Udgitha, (3) Pratihara, (4) Upadrava, (5) Nidhana.

Atharvaveda Samhita: Structural Details

  • Shakhas: Patanjali in Mahabhashya mentions 9 - Paippalada, Tauda, Mauda, Shaunakiya, Jajala, Jalada, Brahmavada, Devadarsha, Charanavaidya (Currently only Paippalada and Shaunakiya available).

  • Shaunakiya Structural View: 20 Kandas, 730 Suktas, 5987 Mantras.

  • Commentator: Sayana.

  • Upanishads: Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya.

  • Alternative Names: Brahmaveda, Atharvangiraveda, Bhishagveda, Kshatraveda, Mahiveda, Chhandoveda.

Vedangas: The Six Limbs of the Veda

  • Verses of Paniniya Shiksha:

    • "Chhandas are the feet of the Veda, Kalpa is the hand, Jyotisha the eyes, Nirukta the ears, Shiksha the nose (breath), and Vyakarana the mouth."

    1. Chhanda (Meter): Feet (Pada).

    2. Kalpa (Ritual Procedure): Hands (Hasta).

    3. Jyotisha (Astronomy/Astrology): Eyes (Chakshu).

    4. Nirukta (Etymology): Ears (Shrotra).

    5. Shiksha (Phonetics): Nose (Ghrana).

    6. Vyakarana (Grammar): Mouth (Mukha).

Evolution Theory and Creation Texts in Vedas

  • Purusha Sukta (10.9010.90):

    • The Purusha has a thousand heads, eyes, and feet. He pervades the earth on all sides and stands ten fingers above it.

    • Birds and animals are created from him (Vayavya, Aranya, Gramya).

    • The four castes originate from his body: Brahmana from the mouth, Rajanya (Kshatriya) from the arms, Vaishya from the thighs, and Shudra from the feet.

    • The Moon is born from his mind, the Sun from his eyes, Indra and Agni from his mouth, and Vayu from his breath.

  • Hiranyagarbha Sukta (10.12110.121):

    • In the beginning, Hiranyagarbha was the sole lord of all creation. He upheld the heaven and the earth.

    • It poses the refrain: "Kasmai Devaya Havisha Vidhema?" (To which God shall we offer our oblation?).

  • Nasadiya Sukta (10.12910.129):

    • Describes the state before creation: "There was neither existence nor non-existence… there was no sky beyond."

    • Creation emerged through the power of penance (Tapas). Desire (Kama) was the first seed of the mind.

Nirukta: Key Concepts

  • Shad-bhava-vikara (Six states of existence by Varshyayani):

    1. Jayate: Birth/Existence begins.

    2. Asti: Continuous existence.

    3. Viparinamate: Transformation/Change.

    4. Vardhate: Increase/Growth (e.g., wealth or physical size).

    5. Apakshiyate: Decay/Decrease.

    6. Vinashyati: Destruction/Loss.

  • Deities in Nirukta: Classified by their dwelling place.

    1. Prithvisthaniya (Terrestrial): Agni, Soma, Brihaspati.

    2. Antarikshasthaniya (Intermediate/Celestial): Indra, Rudra, Marut, Parjanya, Vata.

    3. Dyusthaniya (Heavenly): Aditya, Savita, Surya, Pusha, Varuna, Vishnu.

  • Classification of Chhandas (Meters):

    • Measured by syllables (Akshara).

    1. Gayatri: 24 syllables (3 padas of 8 syllables or 4 padas of 6).

    2. Ushnik: 28 syllables (2 padas of 8 and 1 pada of 12).

    3. Anushtup: 32 syllables (4 padas of 8).

    4. Brihati: 36 syllables (3 padas of 8, final pada of 12).

    5. Pankti: 40 syllables (5 padas of 8).

    6. Trishtup: 44 syllables (4 padas of 11).

    7. Jagati: 48 syllables (4 padas of 12).

Vyakarana: Grammar and Siddhanta Kaumudi Principles

  • Sandhi (Union):

    • Yan Sandhi: Iko yanachi (i/u/ri/lri + vowel → y/v/r/l). Example: Suddhyupasyah.

    • Ayadi Sandhi: Echo'yavaryavah (e/o/ai/au + vowel → ay/av/ayy/avv). Example: Haraye, Vishnave.

    • Guna Sandhi: Adgunah (a/aa + i/u/ri/lri → e/o/ar/al). Example: Upendrah, Gangodakam.

    • Vriddhi Sandhi: Vriddhirechi (a/aa + e/o/ai/au → ai/au). Example: Krishkaitvam, Gangaudhah.

    • Pararupa: Eni pararupam. Example: Prejate, Upodhati.

  • Karaka (Case and Grammar roles):

    • Prathama (Nominative): Pratipadikartha-linga-parimana-vachanamatre prathama. Used for the essential meaning of a stem, gender, measure, and number.

    • Dvitiya (Accusative): Karturipsitatamam karma. The object most desired by the performer. Also triggered by words like Ubhayatah, Sarvatah, Dhika.

    • Tritiya (Instrumental): Sadhakatamam karanam. The most effective means for the action. Triggered by Saha (along with).

    • Chaturthi (Dative): Karmana yamabhipraiti sa sampradanam. He whom the donor intends to reach with a gift. Triggered by "Namah", "Svaha", "Svasti".

    • Panchami (Ablative): Dhruvamapaye'padanam. Fixed point from which separation occurs. Triggered by fear (Bhityarthanam bhayahetuh).

    • Shasthi (Genitive): Shasthi sheshe. Expresses residual relations like ownership (Rajnah purushah).

    • Saptami (Locative): Adharo'dhikaranam. The support or base of an action. Triggered by time/place inter-relations.

Samasa (Compounds)

  1. Avyayibhava: First word is primary and usually an indeclinable (Adhi-hari, Upa-gangam).

  2. Tatpurusha: Final word is primary. Includes sub-types like Karmadharaya and Dvigu. (Rajapurushah).

  3. Karmadharaya: Special relation of adjective-noun (Nilotpalam).

  4. Dvigu: Starts with a number (Trilokam, Panchapatram).

  5. Bahuvrihi: Indicates a third thing entirely outside the components (Pitambarah - Krishna).

  6. Dvandva: Both components are primary (Rama-Krishnau).

Jyotisha: Vedic Astrology

  • Nakshatras (27 Stars):

    • Ashvini, Bharani, Krittika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Aridra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva Phalguni, Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Svati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mula, Purva Ashadha, Uttara Ashadha, Shravana, Dhanistha, Shatabhisha, Purva Bhadrapada, Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati.

    • Classifications: Dhruva (Fixed), Chara (Movable), Ugra (Fierce), Mishra (Mixed), Kshipra (Swift), Mridu (Soft), Tikshna (Sharp).

  • Tithi (Lunar Dates): Classification into Nanda (1,6,111, 6, 11), Bhadra (2,7,122, 7, 12), Jaya (3,8,133, 8, 13), Rikta (4,9,144, 9, 14), and Purna (5,10,15/305, 10, 15/30).

  • Graha (Planets):

    • Male: Sun, Mars, Jupiter.

    • Female: Moon, Venus.

    • Neuter: Mercury, Saturn.

    • Benefic: Jupiter, Venus, Full Moon.

    • Malefic: Sun, Mars, Saturn, Waning Moon.

    • Varna (Caste) of Planets: Jupiter/Venus (Brahmana), Sun/Mars (Kshatriya), Moon (Vaishya), Mercury (Shudra), Saturn (Mixed/Antyaja).

  • Kala-mana (Nine measurements of time): Brahma, Divya, Paitrya, Prajapatya, Gurorstatha, Saura, Savana, Chandra, Aaksha.

Purana and Itihasa

  • Definitions:

    • Sarga: Primary creation.

    • Pratisarga: Dissolution and re-creation.

    • Vamsha: Genealogy of gods and rishis.

    • Manvantara: Cosmic cyclical ages (14 Manus).

    • Vamshanucharitam: Stories of the royal dynasties.

  • The 18 Mahapuranas: Based on the verse: "Ma-dvayam, Bha-dvayam chaiva, Bra-trayam, Va-chatusthayam…"

    • Brahmanda, Brahma-vaivarta, Brahmapurana, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Bhagavata, Naradiya, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, Brahmanda.

  • Itihasa:

    • Ramayana: Created by Valmiki. 7 Kandas, 500 Sargas, 24000 Verses. Main flavor (Rasa) is Karuna (Pathos).

    • Mahabharata: Created by Veda Vyasa. 18 Parvas. Known as "Jaya Kavya." The Bhishma Parva contains the Bhagavad Gita.

Dharmashastra: Social Duties and Jurisprudence

  • Sanskaras (Sacraments): Traditionally 16 in number (Shodasha Sanskara).

    • Birth-related: Garbhadhana, Pumsavana, Simantonnayana.

    • Childhood: Jatakarma, Namakarana, Nishkramana, Annaprashana, Chuda, Karnavedha.

    • Education: Vidyarambha, Upanayana, Vedarambha, Keshanta, Samavartana.

    • Adulthood: Vivaha (Marriage).

    • Death: Antyeshti.

  • Eight types of Marriage (Vivaha):

    1. Brahma: Giving dowered daughter to a learned man.

    2. Daiva: Giving daughter to a priest during sacrifice.

    3. Arsha: Marriage with the trade of a bull and a cow.

    4. Prajapatya: Marriage for social service/dharma.

    5. Asura: Purchasing the bride.

    6. Gandharva: Love marriage/consensual union.

    7. Rakshasa: Forcible abduction.

    8. Paishacha: Abduction by trickery or during sleep.

Arthashastra (Kautilya)

  • Structure: 15 Adhikaranas (Sections).

    • 1. Vinayadhikarika: Rules of training/discipline (ministers, council, spies).

    • 2. Adhyakshaprachara: Heads of various state departments.

    • 3. Dharmasthiya: Civil Law (inheritance, marriage).

    • 4. Kantakashodhana: Criminal Law (suppression of crime).

    • 5. Yogavritta: Courtiers' conduct and extra-revenue measures.

    • 6. Mandala-yoni: Elements of the circle of states.

  • The Seven Organs of State (Saptanga): (1) Swami (Ruler), (2) Amatya (Ministers), (3) Janapada (Territory), (4) Durga (Fort), (5) Kosha (Treasury), (6) Danda (Army), (7) Mitra (Ally).

  • Types of Spies: Gudha-purusha classified as Samstha (Stationary - 5 types: Kapatika, Udasthita, Grihapati, Vaidehaka, Tapasa) and Sanchara (Wandering - 4 types: Satri, Tikshna, Rasada, Bhikshuki).