Notes for End of Year Exam
Pakistan’s Indus Basin Irrigation System
Largest globally, supplying 90% of farmland using canals, tube wells, dams, and rivers.
Canals irrigate 77%, tube wells 16%, other sources 7%.
Vital for agriculture, food production, and economic stability.
Wheat Production
Staple food, best in temperate climates with flat land.
Needs water while growing, sunshine while ripening.
Thrives in well-drained clay/loam with humus.
Pakistan: ranked 8th in wheat production in 2019, Punjab and Sindh are top producers.
Main crop in Pakistan, supplemented by sugar cane, cotton, maize, and rice, contributing over 23.6% of crop value.
Supports winter (kharif) and summer (rabi) harvests.
Rice Production
90% grown/eaten in Asia.
Pakistan ranks 10th globally, exporting Basmati rice.
Thrives in tropical regions (above 21°C, 1000–1200 mm rainfall).
Pakistan’s rice grows in the north-east, needing irrigation.
Early growth: more water, mature plants: less.
Cotton Production
Needs sunshine and moderate rainfall (250–1200 mm/year) or irrigation.
Best in alluvial soil, tolerates salt & drought.
Southern Punjab & central Sindh are key areas; irrigation compensates for low rainfall.
Lint for textiles, fluff for cushions & paper, cottonseed oil for food.
Cottonseed meal feeds livestock; stalks & leaves enrich soil.
Sugar Cane Production
Pakistan's second most important cash crop, thrives in tropical conditions.
Needs water and nutrient-rich soil; grown in Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan.
Used for white sugar & gur, along with alcohol & organic fertiliser.
Bagasse for paper, chipboard & biomass energy.
Livestock Farming
Animals raised for products (meat, milk, skins).
Chickens, cattle, and sheep are primary livestock.
Cattle thrive in temperate zones; some areas need hardy breeds.
Cattle graze on grassy lands; rotate when 50–70% of grass is consumed.
Sheep Farming
Sheep graze on shorter grass, need dry conditions.
Thrive on hills and mountains, ideal for regions with limited rainfall.
Goat Farming
Key livestock worldwide, especially in Asia & Africa.
Pakistan: goats, cattle, buffalo, sheep, camels, horses, asses, and mules.
Punjab leads in livestock numbers, followed by Sindh.
Goats adapt well to different terrains.
Buffalo
Buffalo need plains.
Sheep
Sheep survive on steep slopes.
Camels
Camels suit arid regions.
Poultry Farming
Hens, chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, & quails, raised for meat, eggs, feathers, or pets.
Pakistan expanded commercial poultry farming in the 1960s with gov't support.
Plays a crucial role in Pakistan’s agriculture, including meat exports.
Overgrazing & Livestock Impact
Overgrazing damages soil, causes erosion, promotes weeds.
Livestock farming emits 15% of global greenhouse gases, uses 70% of agricultural land.
Forestry
Forests cover 30% of land; Pakistan’s cover is 5.01%, crucial for timber, paper, latex, medicine, and tourism.
Managed by planting new trees after harvesting.
Pakistan’s forests: 60% coniferous & scrub forests, plus riverine, irrigated, planted, mangrove, and farmland trees.
Agricultural Challenges
Urban expansion reduces farmland.
Agriculture emits 9.3B tonnes of , worsening climate change & land degradation.
Deforestation impacts rainfall, soil moisture, and increases flood risks.
Fishing Industry
Major economic sector, supporting 400,000 families & exports.
Pakistan’s 1058 km coastline is rich in shrimp, tuna, and commercial fish.
Main ports: Karachi, Gwadar, Pasni, plus inland fisheries & aquaculture (mainly carp farming).
Globalization & Agriculture
Economic cooperation boosts food security, trade, employment, and foreign exchange.
Pakistan is a top producer of wheat, cotton, sugarcane, mango, dates, and oranges.
Major crops contribute 4.9% to GDP, minor crops 2.1%.
Key exports: Rice, cotton, fish, fruits, vegetables; imports: Vegetable oil, wheat, pulses, consumer foods.
Land overuse, mechanization, GM seeds, & pollution impact soil, biodiversity, and climate.
Sustainable Agriculture
Eco-friendly farming ensures productivity while reducing environmental damage.
Crop rotation, intercropping, zero tillage, organic pest control, and livestock-crop integration boost efficiency.
Agroforestry reduces waterlogging, salinity & creates jobs.
Key Numbers & Statistics
Pakistan’s agricultural GDP contribution: Major crops: 4.9%, Minor crops: 2.1%.
Pakistan’s seafood exports (2021): $26.25 million.
Pakistan’s Rank in global markets: Largest camel market in Asia, 2nd largest apricot & ghee market, 3rd largest cotton, onion, & milk market.
Pakistan’s major exports (2022): Knitwear, readymade garments, bed wear, cotton cloth, towels, cotton yarn, Basmati rice, surgical goods.
Crude Oil & Energy
Global daily oil consumption: 100 million barrels.
1 barrel of crude oil: 42 US gallons / 159 liters.
Pakistan relies on imports.
Natural Gas
Pakistan’s largest natural gas field: Sui Gas Field, reserves are 1.6 trillion cubic feet (2017 estimate).
LNG compression ratio: 1/600th volume of natural gas.
Coal Reserves & Mining
Pakistan’s coal reserves: 175 billion tonnes; Sindh (Thar coalfield) – 98%.
Coal electricity contribution in Pakistan: <1%.
Longwall mining coalface length: 100–350 meters.
Renewable Energy & Hydropower
Hydropower contribution: 45% → 28% by 1991.
Pakistan’s hydropower capacity: 10,000 MW.
Daily sunlight availability: 8.5 hours.
Total solar power generation (2017): 430 MW.
Economic Dependence on Energy
Major sectors using energy: Residential, Commercial, Transportation, Industrial.
Climatology vs. Meteorology
Climatology: long-term climate patterns; meteorology: short-term weather.
Weather changes frequently; climate shifts over at least 35 years.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in the Earth’s climate.
The planet is warming.
Tracking Climate Change
Earth’s average temperature increased by 0.65°C – 1.06°C (1880–2012).
Troposphere’s air temperature has risen by 0.13°C – 0.22°C per decade since 1979.
Causes of Temperature Change
Ocean currents, Volcanic eruptions, Changes in atmospheric gas composition.
Greenhouse Effect
Earth’s atmosphere traps heat using greenhouse gases.
Human Impact on Greenhouse Gas Levels
Increased greenhouse gases since 1900s have accelerated warming from vehicles, factories, agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation.
Effects of Climate Change
Dry areas drier, wet regions wetter; more extreme weather.
Melting polar ice increases freshwater flow, permafrost releases carbon dioxide and methane.
Ozone Layer & Its Importance
Ozone () filters harmful UV radiation.
Ozone and Pollution
Low-level ozone damages plants, causes health issues, is a major component of smog.
International Action Against Ozone Depletion
Montreal Protocol (1987) reduced CFC use.
Disappearing Ice & Glacier Retreat
Higher temperatures cause glaciers to retreat, but some advance.
Glacial melting can cause floods.
Sea Ice & Global Warming
Arctic sea ice reflects sunlight, slowing global warming.
Antarctica’s ice is not shrinking.
Land Ice & Rising Sea Levels
Glaciers store 75% of Earth’s freshwater.
Melting would raise sea levels by 70m.
Causes of Climate Change
Global warming is linked to increased greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, industry, transport, deforestation, population, and overconsumption
Impact on Animals & Plants
Changing climates disrupt migration, reproduction, and survival.
Marine Life
Whales, sea turtles, polar bears, corals & shellfish are impacted by changing climates.
Fish & Birds
Warmer waters disrupt ecosystems, affecting fish and bird populations through floods and migration shifts.
Plants
Wildfires, droughts, and pests threaten plant species.
Impact of Climate Change on People
Freshwater supplies affected, crop survival threatened, storms & floods damage agriculture.
Air pollution leads to health issues.
Heatwaves are becoming more frequent.
Disease spread increases; rising sea levels threaten settlements.
Improving Our Environment
International efforts reduce greenhouse gases; the ozone layer is recovering.
Reducing Greenhouse Gases
Renewable energy, energy-efficient appliances, alternative energy sources, carbon capture, biofuels, electric vehicles, better insulation, climate-smart agriculture, and waste management.
Minerals and Power
Geologists’ Five-Point Mineral Test confirms a substance must be naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, have a definite chemical formula, and a crystalline structure to be classified as a mineral.
Types of Minerals
Minerals are metallic or non-metallic and non-renewable.
Metal Ores & Extraction
Metals exist in ores extracted through mining and quarrying.
Pakistan’s Mineral Resources
Pakistan has abundant deposits of metallic and non-metallic minerals, along with oil, natural gas, and gemstones.
Metallic Minerals in Pakistan
Copper & Gold Deposits at Reko Diq mine, Balochistan.
Non-Metallic Minerals
Used in various industries and processed through several methods.
Key products: salt, lime, cement, glass, fertilizers, ceramics, silicon.
Cement: A Key Mineral Product
Modern cement is composed of limestone, clay, gypsum used as a binder in concrete for construction.
Cement & Gypsum Production
China is the top cement producer.
Pakistan has 29 cement industries, vital for economic growth.
Gypsum is abundant in China, India, Pakistan.
Potash & Phosphates
Potash is used in fertilizers, ceramics, detergents.
Phosphates are essential for fertilizers & industrial chemicals.
Salt Deposits
Salt comes from mines & seawater.
Largest salt mines: Goderich (Canada) & Khewra (Pakistan); Pakistan’s Salt Range includes Khewra Salt Mines.
Gypsum & Other Non-Metallic Minerals
Gypsum mined at Khewra.
Other key minerals & uses include Calcite, Kaolin, Potash, Phosphates, Vermiculite, and Sulphur.
Gemstones & Mining in Pakistan
Pakistan has 30% of global gemstone deposits.
Major mining areas: Balochistan, KP, Gilgit-Baltistan; Peshawar is Pakistan’s main gemstone trading center.
Rare Minerals in Pakistan
Emerald, tourmaline, ruby, amethyst, lapis lazuli, sapphire, garnet, turquoise, topaz, quartz, corundum are mostly found in Balochistan, KP, Gilgit-Baltistan.
Economic Impact of Mining
Mining contributes to GDP & GNP, generating wealth through exports.
Raw materials used for construction, electronics, solar panels, medical tech, fertilizers.
Environmental Impact of Mining
Mining leads to deforestation & erosion, pollution, biodiversity loss, global warming, diseases, and the loss of fertile land.
Sustainable Mining Practices
Eco-friendly mining methods, waste treatment plants, land rehabilitation, stricter laws, renewable substitutes, and the 3Rs.
Power Resources
Energy powers essential human activities and electricity fuels lighting, heating, cooling, appliances, electronics, and transportation.
What Are Fossil Fuels?
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are non-renewable.
Fossil Fuel Power Stations
Fossil fuel power stations burn coal, crude oil, or natural gas to produce thermal energy for electricity.
Coal Formation Process
Millions of years ago, forests and plants died, forming peat bogs that converted into coal through high pressure and temperature.
Bituminous Coal
Used for generating electricity, factory heat & power, and producing coke.
Coal Reserves in Pakistan
Pakistan has 175 billion tonnes of coal mostly in Sindh.
Coal & Electricity Production
Coal provides less than 1% of Pakistan’s electricity; governments aim to reduce coal use.
Coal Mining Industry in Pakistan
The industry is underdeveloped, mainly mining low-grade lignite & sub-bituminous coal.
Types of Coal Mining
Deep Mining and Surface Mining are the two main types, each with specific methods and machinery.
Environmental Restoration
After coal extraction, land should be restored to prevent degradation.
Safety in Coal Mines
Most coal miners in Pakistan face poor safety and working conditions; Thar coalfield plans include safety improvements.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels
Advantages: Cheap, efficient, easy to transport, and has by-products.
Disadvantages: Limited reserves, causes soil erosion, contributes to global warming, increases imports.
Crude Oil: Key Facts & Uses
Crude oil is a viscous, inflammable liquid fossil fuel used for gasoline, diesel, kerosene, lubricants, and plastics.
Crude Oil Extraction & Production
Extracted through drilling and adaptable to demand fluctuations.
Global Oil Production
USA, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Canada, and China are the top producers.
Pakistan & Crude Oil
Pakistan has very limited crude oil reserves and relies heavily on imports.
Interesting Facts About Crude Oil
Measured in barrels; used in medicine, sports items, cosmetics; contaminates water.
Natural Gas: Uses & Characteristics
Natural gas is used for cooking, heating, electricity, and industrial processes.
Environmental & Transport Benefits
Produces fewer greenhouse gases than coal and easier to transport via pipelines and ships.
Pakistan's Natural Gas Reserves
Sui Gas Field is Pakistan’s largest natural gas field.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
LNG is natural gas cooled to liquid form for safe transport, taking up 1/600th the volume.
Alternative Energy Resources
Energy is converted from one form to another, with electricity generated by moving electrons.
Biomass Energy
Comes from living organisms, burned to create heat for electricity.
Nuclear Power
Generates electricity through nuclear fission using uranium, producing radioactive waste.
Renewable Energy Sources
Includes hydroelectric, tidal, wind, solar power and doesn’t deplete resources.
Hydroelectric Power in Pakistan
Pakistan has over 80 hydropower stations producing around 10,000 MW of electricity.
Major Dams & Hydropower Plants
Major dams: Tarbela, Warsak, Mangla, Chasma; Micro hydro plants: Sabri waterfall, Jabban, Chitral, Neelum Valley.
Impact of Small-Scale Hydropower
Locals harness waterfalls for electricity, transforming lives in rural areas.
Renewable Energy Sources in Pakistan
Tidal, wind, solar, and geothermal power are explored; Pakistan has wind and solar power plants.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
Advantages: Remote setup, energy independence, fewer emissions, inexhaustible.
Disadvantages: Expensive, loss of land, unreliable, may disturb ecosystems.
Economic Dependence on Energy
Electricity is essential for industrial growth, social welfare, and healthcare; usage divided into residential, commercial, transportation, and industrial sectors.
Energy & Economic Development
Vital for daily activities and industrial economies generate higher revenue.
Impact of Energy Shortages
Energy deficits increase economic dependence, affect all sectors, leading to unemployment, poverty, and instability.
Globalization
Globalisation refers to increasing interconnectedness through trade, communication, technology, and cultural exchange.
Key Aspects of Globalisation
Economic, political, social, cultural, and technological.