Endorsed for EDEXCEL History Study Notes

Endorsement and Publication Information

  • Endorsed for Edexcel.

  • Student Book by Sarah Moffatt, Series Editor: Nigel Kelly.

  • Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL.

  • Website: www.pearsonglobalschools.com

  • Official specifications for all Pearson qualifications: https://qualifications.pearson.com

  • First published 2017

Copyright Notice and Permissions

  • All rights reserved. Reproduction prohibited without written permission, except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or licensing terms.

Picture Credits

  • Stock photo agencies and libraries: Alamy Stock Photo, Bridgeman Art Library Ltd, Getty Images, Rex Shutterstock, TopFoto, Pearson Education.

Figures and Text Permissions

  • Permissions granted by Hodder Education, Oxford University Press, Taylor & Francis Group LLC Books, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc., and W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

  • Acknowledgment: The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online for glossary terms.

Disclaimer and Endorsement Statement

  • Maps are illustrative, not exact.

  • Resource reviewed to ensure high-quality support for Pearson qualification.

  • Endorsement confirms coverage of teaching and learning content.

  • Guidance on assessment activities or teaching approach not covered by endorsement.

  • Official specification and assessment guidance are authoritative information sources.

  • Pearson examiners have not contributed to examination paper sections.

  • Endorsement does not guarantee achievement of Pearson qualification.

Table of Contents

  • About This Book

  • Timeline

  • Chapter 1: The Fall of the Qing, Warlordism and Chaos, 1900-34

  • Chapter 2: The Triumph of Mao and the CCP, 1934-49

  • Chapter 3: Change Under Mao, 1949–63

  • Chapter 4: The Cultural Revolution and Its Impact, 1965–76

  • Chapter 5: China, 1976-89

  • Glossary

  • Index

About This Book

  • Targeted for students using the Pearson Edexcel International GCSE (9-1) History specification.

  • Covers the China: Conflict, Crisis and Change, 1900-89 unit.

  • Five chapters align with the specification's content areas:

    • The fall of the Qing, warlordism and chaos, 1900-34

    • The triumph of Mao and the CCP, 1934-49

    • Change under Mao, 1949-63

    • The Cultural Revolution and its impact, 1965-76

    • China, 1976-89

  • Chapters are divided into manageable sections for complete specification coverage.

  • Blends learning with activities.

  • Sources and exam-style questions enhance understanding and application.

  • Chapter recaps summarize key information for self-assessment.

  • Exam guidance prepares students for exams.

Chapter 1: The Fall of the Qing, Warlordism, and Chaos, 1900-1934
Overview

  • In 1900, the Qing imperial dynasty (since 1644) governed China, marked by political underdevelopment and exploitation by Western powers and Japan.

  • Between 1900 and 1934, significant leadership and governmental changes occurred.

  • Revolution led to the Qing dynasty's overthrow, resulting in a republic and political instability.

  • Warlords vied for power post-Qing dynasty collapse.

  • The Guomindang (GMD), under Sun Yat-sen and later Chiang Kai-shek, sought control over China.

  • Initially, the GMD and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) formed a United Front but later became adversaries.

China in the Early 20th Century

  • China's economy relied on natural resources: tea, sugar, silk, and opium.

  • Shanghai emerged as a key import and export port, facilitating trade and economic growth.

Ruling the Country

  • Emperors had ruled China since 2000 BC, residing in the Forbidden City as symbols of power.

  • The emperor's authority was based on the Mandate of Heaven, granting legitimacy to the ruler.

  • The population of 300 million comprised diverse ethnic groups: Han, Manchu, Mongol, and Tibetan.

  • The Han constituted 90% of the population, while the Manchu held ruling power, creating ethnic tensions.

  • The imperial system, derived from Confucius's teachings, enforced a rigid class structure that limited social mobility.

  • Government affairs were managed by Mandarins, scholars of Confucius, who often resisted change and innovation.

  • Peasants had minimal rights within the social hierarchy, and women were regarded as property with limited autonomy.

The Impact of the Boxer Uprising and Self-Strengthening Reform

Causes of the Boxer Uprising

  • The Qing dynasty was perceived as foreign, leading to resentment among the Chinese population.

  • Foreign powers exploited China's economic resources, exacerbating anti-foreign sentiment.

  • Western missionaries' attempts to convert Chinese to Christianity sparked cultural clashes.

  • Empress Dowager Cixi opposed Emperor Guangxu's reforms, contributing to political instability.

  • Intense Chinese animosity toward 'foreign devils' and their technological advancements fueled unrest.

  • Cixi supported attacks on foreigners to deflect criticism from imperial rule and consolidate power.

  • The Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (Boxers) targeted foreigners and Chinese Christians, seeking to expel foreign influence.

  • Predominantly peasants, the Boxers had suffered from natural disasters and economic hardships, intensifying their grievances.

Events of the Boxer Uprising

  • Attacks began in Shandong and spread across provinces, targeting foreign presence and symbols.

  • The Boxers attacked Christian missionaries, set fire to churches and schools, and murdered foreign and Chinese Christians, escalating violence.

  • The uprising reached Beijing, where the German ambassador's assassination heightened international tensions.

  • The Western population sought refuge in the British legation, besieged by Boxers for 55 days, symbolizing resistance against foreign intervention.

  • Cixi backed the Boxers and declared war on foreigners, intensifying the conflict.

  • An international force intervened and broke the siege, leading Cixi and the emperor to flee south to Xian, underscoring the dynasty's vulnerability.

Impact of the Boxer Uprising

  • Foreign control over China intensified, undermining Chinese sovereignty.

  • Western powers demanded £67 million in reparations, draining China's financial resources.

  • China's military fortifications and arsenals were dismantled, weakening its defense capabilities.

  • Ten officials were executed as punishment for supporting the Boxers, signaling a crackdown on dissent.

  • Foreign soldiers were stationed permanently in and around Beijing, asserting foreign dominance.

  • Cixi initiated reforms to salvage the Qing dynasty, but they proved insufficient, marking the dynasty's decline.

Self-Strengthening and Reform (1902-1911)

  • Cixi implemented reforms inspired by the self-strengthening movement to modernize China.

  • Reforms aimed to adopt foreign sciences and technology, strengthening China's capabilities.

  • Reforms included:

    • Educational reforms: new academies and scholarships to foster talent.

    • Nationalization of railways: consolidating control over key infrastructure.

    • Introduction of provincial assemblies: promoting limited political participation.

    • Establishment of a 'new Army' under Manchu control: modernizing the military while preserving Manchu influence.

    • Establishment of a National Consultative Council: advising on governance matters.

    • Reform of the civil service: enhancing efficiency and meritocracy.

    • Abolition of foot binding: challenging traditional norms and empowering women.

The 1911 Revolution

Causes

  • The government weakened following the deaths of Emperor Guangxu and Empress Cixi, creating a power vacuum.

  • Puyi, the new emperor, was only 2 years old, leading Prince Chun to rule as regent, exacerbating leadership instability.

  • The reforms of 1909-11 were inadequate and implemented too late to address fundamental issues.

  • The dominance of Manchus in the new National Consultative Council amplified Han resentment.

  • Army reform increased taxes, heightening financial burdens on the population. Yuan Shikai's dismissal created a formidable adversary.

  • Sun Yat-sen promoted nationalism and republicanism, galvanizing revolutionary sentiments.

  • Growing discontent arose over control of China's railways, symbolizing foreign encroachment.

Events

  • The revolution inadvertently started on October 9, 1911, when a bomb exploded in Hankou, triggering widespread unrest.

  • Soldiers in Wuhan initiated a mutiny, which quickly spread to other provinces, escalating the rebellion.

  • Han soldiers revolted against Manchu control, signaling the collapse of dynastic authority.

  • Yuan Shikai defected to support the rebels and formed a Han government in Beijing, altering the political landscape.

  • Sun Yat-sen was offered the presidency and returned to China, symbolizing the revolution's success.

  • Yuan Shikai persuaded Sun Yat-sen to cede the presidency to him, consolidating power in his hands.

  • Emperor Puyi abdicated on February 12, 1912, marking the end of the Qing dynasty and imperial rule.

China Under the Warlords, the May Fourth Movement, and the Rise of the Guomindang

The Era of the Warlords (1916-1927)

  • From 1912 to 1916, Yuan Shikai governed China as a dictator, centralizing power.

  • Yuan accepted most of Japan's Twenty-One Demands, granting control over China's factories, railway lines, and ports, compromising sovereignty.

  • After Yuan's death, the central government dissolved, and local generals, or warlords, seized power, resulting in fragmentation.

  • Warlords operated their own legal and financial systems, levied taxes, and terrorized populations, undermining governance.

  • Warlord rule inflicted immense suffering on the Chinese people, without an effective central government to provide relief, exacerbating the crisis.

The May Fourth Movement (1919)

  • Sparked by news that Japan would receive German possessions in Shandong province under the Treaty of Versailles, igniting nationalist sentiments.

  • On May 4, 1919, students from Beijing University led a protest in Tiananmen Square, initiating widespread activism.

  • The government's refusal to sign the treaty showcased resistance against foreign interference.

  • Modern ideals, including freedom, democracy, and equal rights, gained traction, inspiring social and political change.

Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Guomindang

  • Sun Yat-sen established his nationalist government in Guangzhou in 1917, laying the foundation for the GMD.

  • He announced the formation of the nationalist party, the Guomindang (GMD), in 1919, formalizing efforts to unify China.

  • Sun articulated the 'Three Principles of the People,' emphasizing the removal of foreign control and the empowerment of the Chinese population, guiding GMD ideology.

  • In 1924, Sun Yat-sen founded the Whampoa Military Academy to train GMD soldiers, bolstering military capabilities.

  • Sun received assistance from advisers from the Bolshevik government in Russia, demonstrating international support.

  • Chiang Kai-shek became the commander of the GMD army, ascending to a prominent leadership role.

  • Following Sun Yat-sen's death from cancer in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek succeeded him, assuming leadership of the GMD.

The Development of the United Front

The Emergence of the Chinese Communist Party

  • The May Fourth Movement fostered revolutionary ideas, including communism, influencing China's political landscape.

  • Karl Marx's theories on communism, developed in the mid-19th century, emphasized class struggle and economic equality.

  • History was viewed as a series of stages in which the proletariat struggled against the economic, political and social control of the higher classes.

  • The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was secretly founded in a girls' school in Shanghai in June 1921, marking a pivotal moment in Chinese communism.

  • Chen Duxui was elected as the general-secretary, providing leadership to the nascent CCP. Mao Zedong was among the initial 12 members invited to join the leadership, signaling his early involvement.

The Influence of the Soviet Union

  • The Bolshevik government in Russia aimed to propagate revolution and safeguard its border with China, shaping Soviet foreign policy.

  • The CCP's limited size hindered its ability to achieve revolution, and China's conditions were not conducive to a Marxist revolution, posing challenges for the CCP.

  • Consequently, the Soviet government urged the newly established CCP to collaborate with the GMD to overthrow the warlords, fostering cooperation.

  • The CCP not only agreed to cooperate with the GMD but also to function as a group within it, demonstrating strategic alignment.

  • Mao Zedong adhered to party directives and joined the GMD, adhering to the united front strategy.

The Establishment of the United Front, 1924-1927

  • The GMD and CCP shared objectives that justified the formation of the United Front:

    • Overthrowing the warlords to restore central authority.

    • Expelling foreigners from China to reclaim sovereignty.

    • Improving the lives of ordinary Chinese people to address socio-economic disparities.

  • The 30 May Incident 1925 further motivated the decision to establish a United Front, underscoring the urgency for collaboration.

The Northern Expedition, the Shanghai Massacres, and the Extermination Campaigns

The Northern Expedition (1926-1928)

  • The Northern Expedition aimed to defeat warlords in central, eastern, and northern China, aiming to reunify the country.

  • Its military strategy focused on encircling each warlord's army, cutting off supply lines, and methodically dismantling them, ensuring strategic effectiveness.

  • The New Republican Army (NRA) achieved significant success in accomplishing its objectives, bolstering the United Front's position.

  • By the summer of 1927, the United Front had gained control over central China, extending its influence.

  • By 1928, Chiang assumed control of eastern China, consolidating power further.

  • In April 1928, Chiang ousted warlord Zhang Zuolin from Beijing in the north, asserting dominance.

  • He declared the GMD as the legitimate government in China and relocated the capital from Beijing to Nanjing, signaling a shift in governance.

  • Chiang had become convinced that the United Front had successfully defeated the warlords and had fulfilled its purpose, prompting a reevaluation of alliances.

The Shanghai Massacres (1927)

  • The GMD garnered support from Shanghai's industrialists and traders, who opposed trade unions, and from foreigners in the International Settlement, who feared the loss of economic interests under Communist control, shaping alliances.

  • Chiang's troops initiated a wave of killings, known as the 'White Terror', targeting Communists and suspected sympathizers.

Extermination Campaigns (1930-1934)

  • Chiang resolved to eliminate the Communists, intensifying the conflict.

  • From 1930 to 1934, he launched five extermination campaigns to suppress Communist forces.