Study Notes on National Economy (1790-1860)
Chapter 13 - Forging the National Economy (1790-1860)
Focus Questions
Population Growth
How fast was the population of America increasing, and what were the sources of this population growth?
Population doubling every 25 years; by 1860, the U.S. had 33 states and was the fourth most populous nation worldwide.
Initially, high birth rates were responsible, but post-1840, immigration, particularly from Ireland during the Potato Famine, became the primary growth source.
What were important developments in American manufacturing?
Development of factory systems, advancements in textile production, and innovations such as the cotton gin and sewing machines.
How did the developing factory system affect women and children?
Women had employment opportunities but faced poor conditions. Children worked under exploitative circumstances, raising issues of ethical labor practices.
What technological advances improved agricultural production?
Inventions such as the steel plow (John Deere) and the mechanical reaper (Cyrus McCormick) led to increased farming efficiency.
What transportation innovations developed and how did they change sectional relationships?
Development of canals, railroads, and steamships enhanced mobility and economic interdependence between different regions of the U.S.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Quote: "Europe stretches to the Alleghenies, America lies beyond"
Represents a socialist, utopian vision.
Jacksonian Democracy
Andrew Jackson's politics emphasized empowering the common man, fostering a sense of 'rugged individualism.'
The hard life led Americans to become self-reliant.
Ecological Imperialism
The expansion to the west altered landscapes significantly, leading to environmental changes.
Example: Riverbottom land in Kentucky was burned, replacing its natural vegetation with bluegrass.
George Catlin (1796-1872)
An early advocate for the preservation of Western lands.
Expressed concern for the future of the American Bison and Native Americans, advocating for national parks to protect these entities, resulting in the establishment of Yellowstone in 1872.
Population Growth
The U.S. population was doubling every 25 years;
By 1860, there were 33 states, and the U.S. was the fourth most populous country globally.
Early growth was attributed to high birth rates before 1840.
Post-1840 growth primarily resulted from immigrant waves, especially from Ireland due to the Potato Famine, which displaced millions and led to about 2 million deaths.
Urban Sprawl
In 1790, there were only two cities over 20,000—New York and Philadelphia; by 1863, 43 cities had populations over 20,000, and 300 cities had over 5,000.
Close living quarters led to numerous urban issues:
Development of slums.
Problems with drinking water and sanitation systems:
Boston: experiments with sewage systems.
New York: shifted from wells to cistern systems.
Increases in crime and disease, necessitating street lighting and enhanced sewer systems.
Immigration
Between 1750-1890, Europe faced overpopulation issues; America became attractive as a land of freedom and opportunity.
Immigrants sought freedom from aristocracies and the chance for social and economic mobility.
Steamship travel facilitated immigration, marking America as a nation with a pluralistic society.
Irish Immigration
By mid-1840s, the Irish potato crop failure led to mass starvation; approximately 2 million people died.
Irish immigrants faced discrimination and competition for jobs, often taking low-paying menial positions.
Tensions arose between Irish immigrants and African Americans, leading to race riots.
Ancient Order of Hibernians
A secret society formed to help struggling Irish immigrants, related to the Molly Maguires, which had gang-like characteristics.
Politics of the Irish
Politicians sought the Irish vote, recognizing their growing presence as a significant voting block.
Irish immigrants often relegated to menial labor but attempted to acquire land, achieving some success and eventually taking control of local political machines (e.g., Tammany Hall in NYC).
German Immigration
Between 1830-1860, around 500,000 Germans immigrated due to agricultural failures and political unrest in their homeland.
Following the failed revolutions of 1848.
Many were middle-class, educated Lutherans who immigrated primarily to the Midwest, opposing slavery and promoting educational and cultural practices (e.g., Kindergarten, Christmas traditions).
Nativism
Immigration spurred nativist sentiments, creating a belief that “America should be for Americans.”
The American Party, also known as the Know Nothing Party, emerged, driven by fears of immigrants outbreeding and taking over.
Tensions resulted in riots between Catholic and Protestant communities, as Catholic immigrants established their own educational systems to avoid Protestant influence.
Factory System
The factory system began around 1750 in England, originating in agriculture.
Innovations led to increased population and demographic shifts due to work being performed outside the home.
Samuel Slater
An Englishman who memorized and illegally brought textile mill blueprints to America; partnered with Moses Brown to establish the first American textile mill in 1791 in Connecticut.
Eli Whitney
Invented the cotton gin in 1793, transforming agriculture and increasing the demand for slavery as cotton became a cash crop supplying northern textile mills.
Additionally created the concept of interchangeable parts and division of labor, revolutionizing manufacturing.
Cotton Gin
Instrumental in reshaping agricultural practices by making cotton production highly profitable, effectively perpetuating and increasing the demand for slave labor.
Lowell System
The employment model in Lowell, Massachusetts, where New England girls worked in textile factories.
Faced low wages under strict conditions, required to adhere to religious practices (e.g., church attendance).
Resulted in women gaining a measure of independence and increased political engagement.
Reflected shifts in gender roles and societal norms, as women began to pursue love matches instead of arranged marriages.
Manufacturing Innovations
Interchangeable parts initiated in the gun manufacturing sector allowed easier repair and standardized production.
The sewing machine was developed by Elias Howe and improved by Isaac Singer, facilitating ready-to-wear clothing production.
Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and Morse Code, enhancing communication for business orders and expanding market reach.
Slave Wages and Labor Conditions
Labor conditions for workers were dire; the Jackson administration led to demands for a ten-hour workday, improved wages, better working conditions, public education access for children, and abolition of debtors' prisons.
Van Buren mandated a ten-hour workday for federal employees, marking a significant step in governmental labor involvement.
Cult of Domesticity
A sociocultural belief system promoting women's roles as moral and nurturing figures at home while men engaged in the business world.
Women began to advocate for love-based marriage and developed a type of domestic feminism, focusing on child-rearing and home management.
Urbanization led to smaller families, with increased child-centered focus within households.
Agricultural Advancements
The Midwest became a global granary, enhanced by technological innovations:
John Deere's steel plow (1837) made breaking tough soils easier.
Cyrus McCormick’s mechanical reaper (1840s) significantly increased harvest yield.
Farmers transitioned to agribusiness, benefiting from advancements in transportation and communication.
Transportation Innovations
Lancaster Turnpike: A crucial roadway connecting Lancaster, PA, to Vandalia, IL, initiating westward movement, started in 1790, completed in 1852.
Steamships: Robert Fulton’s Clermont could travel from NYC to Albany in 32 hours (150 miles), providing reliable transport unbound by wind conditions.
Erie Canal: A breakthrough in canal engineering; sped development and allowed goods to navigate from NYC to Chicago.
Railroads
Railroads revolutionized transportation, enabling faster movement of goods and individuals, establishing themselves as critical infrastructure.
Initial issues arose from safety concerns due to boiler explosions and lack of a standard gauge.
Major improvements were made with the invention of air brakes by Westinghouse and the introduction of steel tracks by Carnegie.
The railroads became integral to the economy, facilitating commerce across regions.
Clipper Ships
Designed for speed, these ships were narrow and sleek, capable of outpacing steamers but reliant on favorable winds for navigation, adding comfort limitations for travelers.
Pony Express
Utilized an extensive relay system from Independence, Missouri, to Sacramento, CA, operational for only 18 months but vital in establishing settlements and enhancing communication across the continent.
Transportation Revolution
This widespread improvement in transportation facilitated a burgeoning economy allowing faster and farther expansion of goods and people movement, creating a stronger interdependent economic framework known as a "Continental Economy."
Market Revolution
Shifted from a subsistence economy to a national network of industry and commerce enhancing competitiveness and specialization.
The legal framework began favoring businesses, enabling monopolies, and introducing limited liability for corporations, increasing the wealth gap.
Cities became centers of severe economic inequality, with many unskilled workers struggling for survival amidst wealth accumulation by factory owners.
Social mobility was a myth; while opportunities existed, real success stories remained limited, leading millions of immigrants to seek the prospects available in America.
Major Themes
Theme: The growing importance of the West: Attracted immigrants and contributed to agricultural production and transportation developments linking it more closely with the rest of the U.S.
Theme: Demographic changes during Jacksonian democracy: Increased movement to cities and the West, and the influx of immigrants who contributed significantly to America’s economy while facing social tension.
Theme: Early industrialization and regional specialization: Transportation advancements transformed the economy into a network of interdependent regions and industries.