Kantian Ethics: Key Concepts and Challenges

Rejection of Utilitarianism: Kantian ethics rejects that happiness is the fundamental ethical value and that the rightness of action is determined by its consequences (consequentialism).
Core Principle: Based on a universal ethical norm called the categorical imperative, specifically the Principle of Humanity.

Definition: Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end.
Humanity: Consists of the capacities for autonomy (reflecting on valuable ends) and rationality (making plans to pursue ends). Individuals with humanity are self-legislators and warrant respect.
Maxims: Principles or policies that guide one's actions. Kantian ethics evaluates actions based on their maxims, not their outcomes.
Treating as a Mere Means: Involves engaging someone in an action or scheme to which they could not in principle consent, typically through deception or coercion.
- Such acts are morally wrong and unjust, constituting a violation of negative duties of justice.
Treating as an End: Requires not using someone as a mere means, respecting them as a rational person, and, ideally, fostering their plans and maxims by sharing some of their ends (positive obligations of beneficence). These positive obligations are selective.

Moral Evaluation: Kantian ethics evaluates actions based on intentions/maxims; utilitarianism evaluates based on results/consequences.
Scope: Kantian ethics primarily evaluates intentional actions, while utilitarianism can assess social arrangements.
Value of Life: Utilitarianism views human life as a means to producing happiness (derivative value); Kantian ethics values human life intrinsically as bearers of rational life and autonomy, which ought not be sacrificed for lesser values, including mere happiness.

Moral Absolutism: Kant's theory can appear exceptionless (e.g., never lie), which some find problematic in situations where exceptions seem morally necessary.
Determinism: The theory's reliance on human autonomy (self-determination) is challenged by the idea that choices may ultimately be caused by factors beyond individual control (e.g., genetics, upbringing).
Scope of the Moral Community: Kant limits moral concern to rational and autonomous individuals, raising questions about the moral status of those who lack these capacities (e.g., animals, infants, the mentally disabled).