Module H Notes: Body Systems, Cancer Care, and Related Nursing Roles

Cell Theory and Cancer

Cell Theory

Basic unit of all living tissues or organisms; all living organisms made of cells; cellular function is an essential process of living things.
Cells contain organelles that carry on the work of the cell.
Cells are the building blocks of the human body; similar basic structure, function, size, and shape may differ.
Cells need food, water, and oxygen to live and function; microscopic in size; divide, grow, and die to renew tissues and organs; reproduce for tissue growth and repair in an orderly manner.
When cells group together, they form tissue; tissues form organs; organs form systems; an organism is made up of interacting systems.

Tissues and Organelles

Connective tissue: anchors, connects, and supports other tissues; found throughout the body (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage); blood is a form of connective tissue.
Epithelial tissue: covers internal and external body surfaces; lines nose, mouth, respiratory tract, stomach, intestines; also forms skin, hair, nails, glands.
Muscle tissue: stretches and contracts to allow movement.
Nerve tissue: receives and carries impulses to the brain.
Organ: made of tissue (may have several tissue types) that carries on a special function; organs combine to form a system.
Organism: systems functioning together to perform activities of daily living.
Organelle: carries on the work of the cell.

Cancer and Neoplasia

Neoplasia: growth of abnormal cells; may be benign or malignant.
Benign tumor: non-cancerous; does not spread to other parts of the body; may grow large but is non-life-threatening; does not grow back when removed (decreases risk of metastasis).
Malignant tumor: cancerous; invades and destroys nearby tissues and can spread (metastasis) by breaking off and traveling to other parts of the body; may be life-threatening; may recur after removal.
Metastasis: spread of cancer to distant sites via blood or lymphatic system.

Cancer Risk Factors (Part 1)

Age: aging is the most important risk factor for cancer.
Tobacco use: active smoking, chewing, dipping, and second-hand exposure increase risk.
Radiation: exposure to sunlight, X-rays, radon gas.
Infections: certain viruses and bacteria can contribute to cancer development.
Immunosuppressive drugs: lower body’s defense against cancer (e.g., after organ transplant).

Cancer Risk Factors (Part 2)

Alcohol use; Diet (high fat, high calories, red meat) increases risk for certain cancers; fruits/vegetables are protective.
Hormones and obesity.
Environment: air pollution, second-hand smoke, asbestos, and other toxins.

Warning Signs (Seven)

Change in bowel or bladder habits.
A sore that does not heal.
Unusual bleeding or discharge from any body opening.
Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere.
Indigestion or difficulty swallowing.
Obvious change in a wart or mole.
Nagging cough or hoarseness.

Cancer Treatments and Goals

Goals: cure (removal of cancer and killing cancer cells), control (prolong life), and palliation (reduce signs/symptoms).
Early detection is key.
Treatments include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and others (hormone therapy, stem cell transplants, alternative approaches).
Choice depends on cancer type, site, size, and spread; may involve one or multiple modalities; may damage nearby healthy tissue and cause side effects.

Radiation Therapy

Kills cancer cells using X-ray beams aimed at the tumor or by placing radioactive material near/at the tumor.
Side effects are typically localized to the treatment area (e.g., skin irritation, dry mouth in head/neck region, fatigue).
Nurse aide role: minimize side effects and provide emotional support; follow care plan directives and safety guidelines.

Chemotherapy (Chemo)

Affects whole body; targets cancer cells but also affects normal cells.
May be given orally or intravenously; ports may be used for IV access and blood draws.
Side effects depend on drugs used: hair loss (alopecia); digestive disturbances; stomatitis; decreased blood cell production leading to bleeding/infection risk; cognitive/mental changes; emotional changes; potential blood pressure changes with targeted therapies.
Nurse aide role: monitor for side effects, provide comfort, assist with mouth care, nutrition, and psychological support; ensure safety with body fluids and care plan directives.

Nurse Aide Roles for Residents with Cancer (General)

Pain relief or control; rest; exercise; fluids and nutrition; prevention of skin breakdown; bowel management; monitoring and managing treatment side effects.
Assess and report: weakness, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, appetite changes, weight loss, depression, confusion, blood in body outputs, new lumps or sores, changes in skin, pain levels.
Individualized care: avoid assumptions; residents’ experiences vary; provide honest, sensitive, positive support; assess social, spiritual, and emotional needs; respect residents’ preferences for social interaction.
Nutrition: follow care plan; offer varied foods in small portions; for nausea or swallowing difficulties, provide palatable options like soups or gelatin; consider plastic utensils for chemo patients who report altered taste.
Skin care: monitor for pressure injuries; keep skin clean and dry; avoid applying lotion to radiation site unless directed; follow care plan.
Mouth care: chemo-related mucositis; soft toothbrush; avoid alcohol-based mouthwash; gentle swabs as ordered.
Self-image and visitors: support grooming; acknowledge appearance changes; support groups as requested; monitor interactions during visits.

Integumentary System - Key Terms and Pressure Injury Prevention

Integumentary System Overview

The skin is the largest organ and system; includes hair and nails; provides protective covering and sensory input through nerve endings.

Integumentary System Structure

Epidermis: outer layer; contains living and dead cells; pigmented; no blood vessels; primarily avascular but has nerve endings.
Dermis: middle layer; contains blood vessels, nerves, sweat glands, oil glands, hair roots.
Subcutaneous (fatty) tissue: thick layer of fat and connective tissue.

Integumentary System Function

Protects body from injury and pathogens.
Regulates body temperature; eliminates waste via perspiration.
Contains nerve endings for temperature, pain, pressure, and touch.
Stores fat and vitamins.

Integumentary System Normal Findings and Aging Changes

Normal: warm, dry skin; no breaks, rash, discoloration, swelling.
Aging: skin becomes thinner, drier, and more fragile; reduced elasticity; decreased fat layer; hair may thin or gray; nails may harden or become brittle; reduced circulation leading to dryness/itching; development of skin tags, warts, moles.

Variation of Normal and Skin Conditions

Breaks in skin; pale, white, or reddened areas; black/blue discoloration; rash or itching; abnormal temperature.
Ulcers, sores, or lesions; swelling; dry or flaky skin; drainage.

Shingles (Herpes Zoster)

Viral illness; more common after age 50; signs include rash/blisters on one side of the body, burning pain, numbness, itching; contagious until lesions crust over; vaccine recommended for those 60+ who’ve had chickenpox.
Nurse aide role: follow care plan; keep rash covered until crusted; wash hands; avoid scratching; assist with hand hygiene.

Stasis Dermatitis

Skin condition on lower legs/ankles due to fluid buildup and poor circulation; early signs include scaly/red/itchy areas; can lead to ulcers.
Nurse aide role: report signs; ensure appropriate compression and elevation per plan; monitor anti-embolism stockings.

Pressure Injury (Pressure Ulcers)

CMS definition: any lesion caused by unrelieved pressure that damages underlying tissues; friction and shear contribute.
Risk identification and prevention are essential; many injuries occur within first four weeks of admission.
Bony prominences: sites where bone is near the skin (back of head, shoulders, elbows, sacrum, heels, etc.).

Pressure Injury - Stage 1 to Stage 4 and Unstageable concepts

Stage 1: intact skin with redness over a bony prominence.
Stage 2: partial-thickness skin loss; may see a blister or shallow ulcer.
Stage 3: full-thickness skin loss; may see subcutaneous fat; possible slough.
Stage 4: full-thickness tissue loss with exposure of muscle, tendon, or bone; slough/eschar present.
Unstageable: full-thickness tissue loss covered by slough or eschar.
Deep tissue injury: purple or deep red localized area of discolored intact skin or a blood-filled blister due to underlying tissue damage.

Pressure Injury - Risk Factors and At-Risk Residents

Immobility, moisture, poor nutrition, incontinence, reduced mental awareness, circulatory problems; older residents at higher risk.
Other risk factors: agitated or involuntary movement, age, obesity or extreme thinness, history of injuries, etc.

Pressure Injury - Stages and Sites

Common sites include areas over bones (sacrum, heels, elbows, hips), skin folds, and near devices.

Pressure Injury - Prevention and Care

Identify at-risk residents; follow care plans; proper turning/moving and positioning.
Use assistive devices (pillows, foam wedges); protect red areas; avoid friction and shear (do not raise head more than $30^\circ$ );
Keep feet off bed; inspect skin at every care session; bath with tepid water; use moisturizers on dry areas; manage incontinence; maintain clean, dry linen; avoid heating pressure injuries; do not remove dressings unless instructed.
Back rub during repositioning; avoid massage over bony prominences.

30° Lateral Position and Skin Care

The $30^\circ$ lateral position is used to reduce hip pressure when bed height is not elevated beyond $30^\circ$ .
Pillows under head, shoulder, and leg; hip lifted to about a $30^\circ$ angle to prevent pressure on the hip.

Handling, Moving, and Positioning

Follow care plan directives; adhere to repositioning schedules; use assistive devices; maintain proper body alignment; avoid red/painful areas; ensure no friction with bed sheets; keep feet and heels off bed; ensure safe transfers.

Providing Skin Care to Prevent Pressure Injury

Inspect skin at each care session; bathe with non-hot water; avoid soap that dries skin; manage incontinence; check for perspiration or wound drainage; moisturize dry areas; use back rubs; keep linens wrinkle-free; avoid heat on injuries; avoid skin-to-skin rubbing; minimize friction near wounds and devices.

Musculoskeletal System

Overview and Structure

Provides structure and movement; more than 600 muscles; some muscles connect to bones via tendons.

Muscles, Joints, and Bones

Muscle types:
- Skeletal (voluntary, attached to bone, striated).
- Smooth (involuntary, in walls of organs).
- Cardiac (heart, involuntary, striated).
Movement terms:
- Abduction/adduction: movement away from/toward the midline.
- Flexion/extension: bending/straightening; dorsiflexion (toes up), plantar flexion (toes down).
- External/internal rotation; opposition (thumb to finger); pronation/supination.
Joint types:
- Hinge joints (one-direction).
- Ball-and-socket joints (all directions).
- Pivot joints (rotation).
Bones and Joints:
- Skeleton: approx. $206$ bones; periosteum (outer covering) with blood vessels; bone marrow inside.
- Ligaments connect bones to bones.
- Tendons connect muscles to bones.
- Joints: cartilaginous cushions; synovial membrane and fluid; some joints are movable, some not. Examples: ball-and-socket (hip, shoulder), hinge (elbows, knees), pivot (skull to spine).

Common Musculoskeletal Conditions and Interventions

Fracture: break in a bone; closed (no skin break) vs open/compound (bone breaks the skin); signs include pain, swelling, bruising; ensure falls prevention; treat with casts/braces; observe for circulation changes.
Hip fracture: serious; recovery months; many require surgery; weight-bearing restrictions; abduction pillow to maintain hip alignment; monitor incision and pain; fall prevention.
Total Knee Replacement (TKR): prosthetic knee; goals include pain relief and restoring mobility; post-op care common with hip replacement; reduce clots via stockings; monitor pain and circulation.
Amputation: surgical removal of a limb or part of a limb.
Phantom Sensations/Pain: phantom pain and phantom sensations may occur after amputation; acknowledge and support the resident; report to nurse; coordinate prosthetic care; assist with daily activities.
Contracture: permanent shortening of muscle/tendon causing immobility; prevention via ROM exercises and positioning.
Muscle Atrophy: wasting away of muscle due to disuse; prevention via ROM exercises and positioning.
Osteoporosis: bone density loss; bones become porous/brittle; risk of fractures; prevention through calcium intake, exercise, and mobility; safe handling and fall prevention are key nurse aide roles.

Arthritis (Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis)

Osteoarthritis: degenerative joint disease; weight-bearing joints common; stiffness/pain; worsens with cold/damp weather.
Rheumatoid Arthritis: autoimmune; multiple joints become painful, red, swollen; may cause severe deformities; needs independence-focused care and safety.

Fracture and Postoperative Care

Signs: pain, swelling, bruising, limited mobility; post-fracture care emphasizes cast/cast care, limb elevation, circulation checks, and fall prevention.

Nervous System

Overview and Components

Controls and coordinates body functions; reflex centers for heartbeat and respiration; senses and responds to internal/external changes.
Two major divisions:
- Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves throughout the body.

The Neuron

Neuron: basic unit of the nervous system; conducts impulses; some neurons are insulated with myelin, increasing conduction speed.

The Brain and Its Regions

Protected by the skull; three main parts: cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem.
Cerebrum: center of thought and intelligence; divided into right/left hemispheres; four lobes per hemisphere (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal).
Cerebral cortex: higher functions (thinking, memory, speech) and voluntary movement control.
Cerebellum: balance and coordinated movements.
Brainstem: regulates breathing, heart rate, swallowing, blood vessel control.

Lobes and Functions

Frontal lobe: cognitive functions and voluntary movement.
Parietal lobe: temperature, taste, touch, movement.
Occipital lobe: vision.
Temporal lobe: memory and processing sounds/senses.

Hemispheric Regulation

Right hemisphere controls left side; Left hemisphere controls right side.
Injury/illness to a hemisphere affects opposite side functions.

Spinal Cord and Sensory Organs

Spinal cord conveys messages between brain and body.
Sensory organs (skin, tongue, nose, eyes, ears) receive environmental impulses and relay to brain.

Nervous System Normal Findings, Aging, and Variations

Normal: alert, oriented; intact sensory function; steady gait; reflexes present.
Aging: some hearing loss, memory changes, slower response, decreased sense of touch/pain, reduced brain blood flow, changes in memory.
Variations: altered gait, unilateral numbness, seizures, confusion, loss of function on one side, etc.

Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident, CVA)

Caused by blood vessel leakage/break or loss of blood flow leading to brain tissue death; emergency.
F.A.S.T.: Facial drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulty, Time to call for help.
Aftermath may include hemiplegia/hemiparesis, aphasia (expressive or receptive), emotional lability, sensory loss, cognitive impairment, dysphagia.
Nurse Aide Role after Stroke: provide range of motion to maintain joint mobility; maintain body alignment; support communication; be aware of confusion/memory loss; encourage independence; monitor skin integrity; adapt self-care activities; ensure items on unaffected side; assist with feeding/dressing as directed.

Parkinson’s Disease

Progressive, incurable neurodegenerative disease causing stiffness, shuffling gait, bent posture, tremors, mask-like face.
Nurse aide role: support mobility and safety; assist with ambulation; support activities of daily living; ensure safe environment.

Head and Spinal Cord Injuries

Result from accidents; range from mild to severe; paraplegia (lower body) and quadriplegia (all four limbs plus trunk).
Nurse aide role: provide emotional support; assist with self-care; assist with position changes every $2$ hours; ROM per care plan; manage urinary catheters if present; encourage fluids to prevent constipation; monitor for infections.

Nervous System Nursing Considerations

Normal findings; aging changes; and specific conditions require tailored ROM, alignment, communication strategies, and fall prevention.

Cardiovascular System

Overview

Also called the circulatory system; continuous movement of blood through the body.

Cardiovascular Changes with Aging and Common Conditions

Hypertension (high blood pressure): major risk factor; often due to atherosclerosis; signs may include headaches, blurred vision, dizziness.
Atherosclerosis: hardening of arteries due to plaque buildup.
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): narrowed coronary arteries; reduced blood supply to heart; may lead to MI.
Angina Pectoris: chest pain due to insufficient oxygen to heart muscle during exertion or stress.
Myocardial Infarction (MI, heart attack): emergency; tissue death due to blocked blood flow; possible cardiac rehabilitation after survival.
Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD): poor circulation to limbs; risk of leg ulcers and pain with walking.
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF): heart insufficiently pumps; may involve left/right sides with pulmonary edema or peripheral edema; fatigue, edema, weight gain.

Vital Signs, Edema, and Nursing Roles

Nurse aide role: monitor vital signs (BP, pulse), assist with diets, monitor intake/output, provide rest, elevate HOB, check for edema, monitor daily weights, report chest pain.
Edema: fluid accumulation due to imbalanced intake/output; measures include daily weights, I&O, fluid restrictions if ordered, pillow support, assess for rapid weight gain and edema signs.

Respiratory System

Overview

Structure: thorax contains respiratory structures; upper and lower respiratory tracts; function is gas exchange (inspiration/expiration).

Respiratory Changes with Aging and Common Conditions

Changes: weaker respiratory muscles; less elastic lung tissue; decreased lung capacity; diaphragmatic weakness.
COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema; resistance to air outflow; patients may be on oxygen; fear of not being able to breathe.
- COPD Management: sit up to improve expansion; pursed-lip breathing; increased rest; encourage fluids and small meals; monitor oxygen in use (do not adjust oxygen without order).
Pneumonia: acute infection; fever, productive cough, chest pain; higher risk in COPD patients; vaccination and infection control.
Asthma: chronic inflammatory disease with airway hyperreactivity; triggers like allergens or irritants; bronchial constriction and mucus production; management includes avoiding triggers and medications.
URI/Upper Respiratory Infection: viral/bacterial; signs include nasal drainage, sore throat, fever; remedies include rest and fluids.

Respiratory System Nursing Roles

Provide rest periods, encourage exercise, assist with deep breathing exercises, limit exposure to irritants, position to maximize lung expansion.

Digestive System

Overview and Function

GI system: extends from mouth to anus; two main functions: digestion and elimination; upper GI (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach) and lower GI (small and large intestines); accessory organs (teeth, tongue, liver, pancreas, etc.).
Peristalsis: involuntary contractions moving food through the system.

Bowel Movements and Related Terms

BM: feces, stool, or bowel movement; defecation is the act of bowel elimination.
Normal stool: brown, soft, formed; adequate fluid intake; regular bowel movements.
Common descriptors: Diarrhea (liquid stool); Constipation (hard, difficult to pass); Flatulence; Fecal incontinence.

Digestive System Aging and Variations

Aging changes: decreased taste buds; slowed peristalsis causing constipation; slower nutrient absorption; loss of bowel muscle tone; thinner stomach lining; reduced saliva and enzymes; tooth loss; altered taste/smell.
Variation of Normal: difficulty swallowing or chewing; weight changes; abdominal pain; blood or mucus in stool; incontinence.

Gastric Ulcer & Gastritis; GERD

Gastric peptic ulcer: raw sores in stomach from excessive acid; signs include burning pain after meals, belching, vomiting; may bleed causing dark stools; manage with diet and care plan.
Gastritis: inflammation of stomach lining; risk factors include NSAID use, alcohol, stress; careful monitoring by nurse aide.
GERD: chronic reflux; heartburn is common; care plan may include dietary modifications, remaining upright after meals, and sometimes elevation of head.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease and GERD Considerations

Ulcerative colitis: chronic inflammation of colon; may require colostomy where stool exits through an abdominal opening into a bag.

Constipation, Fecal Impaction, and Enema Rules

Constipation: slow stool movement through intestines; signs include abdominal swelling, gas; various causes include low fluids, poor diet, inactivity, medications.
Fecal impaction: hard stool stuck in rectum; signs include no stool for days and abdominal pain; aides are not allowed to remove impactions; enema orders required.

Enema Use and Nursing Role

Enema types: tap water, soapsuds, saline, commercially prepared; follow physician orders and facility protocol.

The Enema and Digestive System – Nurse Aide Role

Dentures, choking risk, meals, private elimination; promote daily bowel movements; encourage hydration ( $64$ oz/day typical for healthy adult); fiber intake; physical activity for peristalsis; leans and positions to aid elimination; bowel habit assessment; patient-specific routines.

Urinary System

Overview and Structure

Filtration and waste removal; kidneys regulate water, electrolytes, and blood pressure; ureters transport urine; bladder stores urine; urethra excretes urine.
Kidneys: bean-shaped, located in back of abdominal cavity; filter blood and produce urine; regulate electrolytes and blood pressure.
Ureters: narrow tubes from kidneys to bladder.
Urinary bladder: muscular sac storing urine.
Urethra: tube from bladder to outside.

Urinary System – Female vs Male Anatomy

Female urethra about $1.5$ inches; male about $7-8$ inches; longer urethra in males.

Urination and Urine

Urination, micturition, voiding; urine composition: water and waste products filtered from blood by kidneys.
Normal urine: light yellow to amber; clear; about $1000-1500 \text{ mL}$ per day.
Urine color changes due to meds/dyes/foods (e.g., B vitamins cause bright yellow; beets/purple foods may tint pink/red; asparagus may tint green).

Urinary Aging and Variations

Aging: decreased kidney size and filtration; decreased bladder elasticity and tone; nocturia; thirst sensations diminish; potential dehydration with low intake.
Variation: color, odor, or amount changes may indicate infection; dysuria; edema; weight changes; fever.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTI) and Kidney Stones

UTI: infection of urethra, bladder, ureters, or kidneys; more common in females; signs include frequency, urgency, painful urination; nurse aide role includes front-to-back cleansing, perineal care, encourage fluids, timely toileting assistance, reporting signs.
Kidney stones: renal calculi; crystals in urine; signs include severe flank/back pain, hematuria, nausea/vomiting; urine straining to catch stones; report to nurse.

Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy (BPH) and CKD

BPH: enlarged prostate in men over $60$ ; urinary retention risk and UTIs; nurse aide role includes perineal care and reporting signs of infection.
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): progressive kidney damage; stages $1-5$ ; dialysis potential in later stages; prevention through diabetes control, blood pressure management, exercise, and weight control.

Urinary Incontinence

Types: stress, urge, functional, overflow, mixed (example: stress incontinence with sneezing/coughing). Not a normal part of aging.
Nurse aide role: prompt response to calls; assist with voiding; keep skin clean and dry; encourage fluids; avoid diaper labeling; provide privacy; manage clothing and environment.

Reproductive System

Overview

Two categories: female and male reproductive systems; responsible for producing reproductive cells and hormones.
Pelvic organ prolapse conditions: cystocele (bladder drops into vaginal canal), rectocele (rectum drops into vaginal canal), uterine prolapse (uterus shifts downward); can cause incontinence; Kegel exercises may help.

Reproductive System Structure and Function

Female: uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina.
Male: penis, testicles, scrotum, urethra.
Normal findings: absence of abnormal bleeding, discharge, pain, or itching; absence of enlarged prostate.
Aging changes: prostate enlargement; reproductive structures may shrink or lose function; breast changes in women may occur.
Variation: abnormal bleeding, discharge, itching.

Pelvic Organ Prolapse Nursing Role

Provide perineal care and report abnormal observations; support with safe assistive devices.

Endocrine System

Overview

Glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.
Maintains homeostasis, growth/development, glucose/calcium regulation, reproduction, and metabolism.

Endocrine Structure and Function

Hormonal regulation across the body; pancreas and insulin regulation of glucose; thyroid regulation; hormonal balance affects energy, digestion, growth, and stress response.

Endocrine System Normal Findings and Aging

Normal: skin warm and dry; alert and oriented; stable weight, appetite, and urination.
Aging: hormone levels decrease; reduced insulin production; decreased ability to handle stress; glucose and endocrine balance changes.

Endocrine System Variation of Normal and Diabetes

Signs: headaches, blurred vision, dizziness, weakness, sweating, confusion, weight changes, thirst, fatigue.
Diabetes: most common endocrine disorder; occurs when pancreas makes little or no insulin or cannot use insulin properly; insulin required for glucose uptake by cells; persistent hyperglycemia.

Types of Diabetes

Type 1: early onset; pancreas does not produce insulin; lifelong management with insulin therapy and diet.
Type 2: typically after age $35$ ; insulin produced but not used well; managed with diet, oral medications; lifestyle changes.
Gestational diabetes: occurs during pregnancy.

Diabetes Nurse Aide Role

Follow care plan; monitor intake and ensure meals; assist with exercise; monitor signs of hypo/hyperglycemia; report changes to nurse.
- Hypoglycemia signs: hunger, shakiness, sweating, confusion, rapid pulse, pale/clamy skin, possible loss of consciousness.
- Hyperglycemia signs: thirst, dry mouth, frequent urination, fatigue, fruity breath, rapid/deep respirations, dehydration.

Immune System

Overview

Protects the body from infection; made up of antibodies and white blood cells.
Normal findings: ability to fight infection; aging can weaken the immune system.

Variation and AIDS

Autoimmune disorders involve immune system attacks on the body itself.
- Lupus: an autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks its own tissues, causing inflammation and damage to various body parts, leading to symptoms like redness, swelling, and pain.
- Graves’ disease: an autoimmune disorder that stimulates the thyroid gland to overproduce hormones, leading to hyperthyroidism.
- Multiple Sclerosis: an immune-mediated disease where the immune system attacks the protective covering (myelin) of nerves in the brain and spinal cord, disrupting communication between the brain and the body.
AIDS: caused by HIV; attacks immune system; transmission via bodily fluids; HIV screening is vital due to advances in treatment.

Nursing Roles

Follow Standard Precautions; provide assistance with activities of daily living; monitor for signs of infection; provide emotional support.
Infection control, nutrition, hydration, and rest support.

Linkages and Practical Implications

Cell theory underpins all anatomy and physiology: tissue types form organs, which form systems; dysfunction at the cellular level can propagate to organ and system-level problems (e.g., cancer, organ failure).
Understanding organ systems helps in care planning for residents with cancer, aging, chronic diseases, and recovery from injuries; emphasizes early detection, symptom management, and holistic care (physical, psychosocial, spiritual).
Ethical considerations include respecting patient autonomy, informed consent for treatments, and sensitivity to changes in self-image (e.g., hair loss, amputations) and quality of life.