Study Notes on Aquinas II
Transcription Notes on Aquinas II
Page 1
Reference to serene King Charles II.
Page 2
Recap of Aquinas.
Mention of Question 91 (Q91).
Page 3
Classical Literature: Modernity is viewed as an attempt to conquer nature.
Human beings are identified as natural entities governed by reason.
Recap of Q90: Law is framed as the means through which humans attain happiness in the world.
Page 4
Discussions referencing Summa Theologica.
Focus on Question 91 titled "Of the Various Kinds of Law."
Page 5
Viewpoint of Aquinas:
Humans are intrinsically social and political.
Community is essential not merely for survival but to live a good life, aiming at happiness (which is the ultimate goal, linked to the common good).
Happiness is found within societal constructs through the law.
Humans are guided by reason, which understands the fundamental stability that is nature.
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Modernity's Rejection:
Modern perspectives discard the notion of unchanging elements in nature, seeking stability through alternative means.
Challenges the idea of whether nature can indeed serve as a standard for providing order in life.
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Structure of Question 91: This question contains six key parts outlining Aquinas' argument:
Existence of governance in the universe implies an eternal law.
Rational beings must possess their governance through natural law.
Necessity of human law arises from the particular nature of human life against the background of general natural law.
Acknowledgment of divine law stems from a higher human end than mere nature, given the limits of human judgment.
Historical immaturity of humanity leads to the concept of a twofold divine law (Old and New).
Internal disarray within humans manifests as a law-like principle of sin.
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Article 1: Discussion focuses on Eternal Law.
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Definition from Q90:
Law is deemed an ordinance or dictate of practical reason from a ruler aimed at the common good within a community and must be promulgated.
Key Question: Is there a law that transcends the human order entirely?
Objections Raised:
Law is typically imposed on subjects; therefore, without creatures, the existence of eternal law is questionable.
Promulgation is necessary for law, yet there's no audience in eternity for such law to be promulgated to.
Laws are aimed at an end, suggesting eternal law is impractical as it lacks a purpose beyond eternal existence.
Each objection emphasizes that law is generally contained within creaturely and temporal contexts.
Page 10
Aquinas' Response:
Cites Augustine, positing that "Supreme Reason" is both unchangeable and eternal, equating supreme reason with law; therefore, eternal law exists.
As law is a revelation through reason, it must stem from a divine being who is eternally responsible for the community.
Eternal law represents God's governance and the ordering of all existence in His intellect.
Since God exists outside of time, eternal law must inevitably exist outside the confines of time itself.
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Rebuttal to Objections:
Claims of eternal law are valid as creatures exist alongside God; thus, they are subject to eternal law influenced by God.
Divine revelation is delivered in the act of Creation, signifying promulgation of law during the temporal creation process.
Laws can imply order towards an end, establishing that existence does not hinder divine law's eternal purpose.
Emphasis on intelligibility of the natural world as it reflects eternal divine reason.
Page 12
Aquinas' Critique of Modernity:
Rebuts the view that reality is chaotic and necessitates political constructs to impose order.
Proposes that the world embodies stability and intelligibility independent of our perception or regulation of it.
Key Distinction: Between the world being comprehensible prior to human will versus the will shaping the understanding of chaotic existence.
Asserts that true existence offers preordained meaning beyond subjective human existence being merely interpretative.
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Article 2: Title: Natural Law.
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Natural Law Discussion:
Asserts participation in eternal law through natural law.
Objections Raised:
If eternal law exists, additional laws seem redundant.
Distinction made suggesting natural law merely reflects instinctive behavior, clashing with rational human nature.
Human free will is at odds with adherence to natural law if law mandates conditions.
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Aquinas' Argument:
Introduces the participation doctrine establishing that natural law is human reflection of eternal law.
All entities participate in God's universal order, though varying in nature and manner:
Plants grow naturally.
Animals follow instinct.
Rational creatures exercise understanding and direction.
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Unique Position of Humans:
Humans partially govern themselves through their faculty of reason, allowing awareness of orders toward ends.
This structured action directs human behaviors towards aims in accordance with natural law.
Natural law signifies the rational understanding of the inherent order of existence.
Page 17
Integration of Reason and Religion:
Aquinas aligns Aristotelian understanding of virtue with Christian teachings emphasizing that the ultimate good derives from God.
Rebuttals to Objections Revisited:
Natural law isn't a separate classification but a realization of eternal law through reason.
Rational participation eclipses simple instinct.
Freedom in human terms correlates with the innate orientation towards goodness.
Aquinas connects human nature’s ability to comprehend the divine supernatural referencing the natural order.
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Article 3: Title: Human Law.
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Necessity of Politics:
Questions why human law is necessary amidst eternal and natural law perspectives.
Objections Addressed:
If natural law suffices for moral guidance, the rationale for human law is debated.
Aristotle's premise suggests that human intellect cannot intrinsically generate laws as it is measured by existing reality.
Human law’s instability is questioned due to subjective judgments being inherently flawed.
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Aquinas’ Resolution:
The concept of determination in law serves the purpose of boundary positioning of moral norms derived from general principles.
Human law assists specifically in applying natural law to societal experiences, aiding clarity amidst abstract principles.
Page 21
Reiteration of Human Law's Purpose:
Further objections emphasizing the redundancy of human law are countered by clarifying that human law makes natural law applicable to community contexts.
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Article 4: Title: Divine Law.
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Need for Divine Law:
Challenge regarding the necessity for divine law when human law aligns with natural law.
Objections Elicited:
The argument of existing law sufficiency meets resistance from the proposed divine law's higher aspirations.
Divine law’s universal application debated against individual claims to moral governance.
Irreducibility of divine law juxtaposed with human sufficiency is questioned.
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Explicit Arguments for Divine Law:
Human ends surpass natural reasoning as law directs toward a transcended aim—eternal happiness—requiring divine revelation.
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Second Argument for Divine Law:
Human judgment is inherently unreliable, necessitating divine law's authoritative and infallible function to stabilize moral understanding.
Page 26
Third Argument for Divine Law:
Human legal systems lack insight into the internal moral dimensions such as thoughts and intentions; divine law embodies moral completeness encompassed within legal structure.
Page 27
Fourth Argument for Divine Law:
Political law is limited as it cannot eradicate all evils; divine law is positioned to address moral accountability beyond earthly life.
Page 28
Consolidation of Arguments:
Concludes divine law’s necessity reflects humanity's orientation toward a higher, eternal aim beyond temporal existence.
Page 29
Further Responses to Objections Against Divine Law:
Clarification that human limitations prompt the need for divine guidance beyond temporal laws.
Page 30
Article 5: Title: Single Divine Law.
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Query on Divine Diversity in Law:
Examination of dual covenants present in the Bible leads to confusion about they might suggest about divine law.
Objections Presented:
With one divine king, questions arise on the reasoning for two differentiating laws.
Shared ends demand unified directing laws—debunking any notion of bifurcation.
Establishes that divine law ought to reflect unity since eternal law remains singular.
Page 32
Aquinas' Response to the Difference Between Testaments:
Differentiates law due to species, acknowledging maturity levels among humanity necessitating distinct directives.
Old Law caters to initial development for societal stability focusing on external behavior and simple moral instructions.
New Law addresses advanced moral education emphasizing inner virtue through love and spiritual obedience.
Page 33
Continued Argument Regarding Testaments:
Responses reassure that law adaptation reflects the progressive essence of human understanding throughout time.
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Article 6: Title: Inclination Toward Sin.
Page 35
Definition of ‘Fomes Peccati’:
Refers to "tinder of sin": the disorderly inclination persisting through sensual appetite post-Fall, not inherently sinful but a departure from rational order—a question of legal designation arises.
Page 36
Further Discourse on Sin as Law:
Investigates if tendencies toward sin can align with law from two critical objections regarding law's rational nature.
Page 37
Conceptual Definitions by Aquinas:
Laws can be classified through essence and participation. Distinct methods include:
Direct inclination via explicit commands.
Indirect inclination through systemic status transition affecting behavioral regulation.
Page 38
Analysis of Pre-Fall and Post-Fall Human Nature:
Reflects on loss of harmony between reason and passion due to original sin, leading to moral disorder manifesting in behavior.
Page 39
Readdressing Sin in Light of Law:
Clarifies that fomes itself does not constitute law but is symptomatic of divine law’s participation framework influencing moral action.