Science Notes

Chapter 1 Science

1.1 What is Science?

1.2 Scientific Method

1.3 Induction

1.4 Deduction

1.5 Kebenaran dalam Sains (Truth in Science)

1.6 Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Ilmu Pengenalan (Knowledge and Recognition)

1.7 Ciri-ciri Sains (Characteristics of Science)

1.8 Andaian dalam Sains (Assumptions in Science)

1.9 Advantages and Limitations of Science

1.10 Science Paradigm

What is Science?

• Science is a systematized body of knowledge based on observation and experimentation.
• It's a branch of knowledge dealing with the phenomena of the universe and their laws.
• It is a particular branch of knowledge distinct from art and technology.
• The word "science" comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge.
• Science, from about the sixteenth century, has come to mean knowledge about the natural world acquired by observation and experiments, as distinct from knowledge acquired by reasoning alone, insight, or revelation.
• Science is the attempt to understand and explain natural phenomena by using systematic observation or experiment, and applying reason to the knowledge obtained to infer testable laws and make predictions or retrodictions.
• Retrodiction: A result that occurred in the past and is deduced or predicted from a later scientific law or theory.
• Science aims to formulate a law or theory to explain the invariable behavior of a system of phenomena.
• Laws or theories are used to predict future outcomes by applying them to specific phenomena within the system. For example, Newton's laws of motion are used to predict the result of firing a specific rocket.
• Science focuses on what can be observed and tested, such as physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, and medicine.
• Things that cannot be observed and tested, like angels, spirits, the afterlife, and sin, are not science.
• Science is knowledge based on rationalism (what can be thought) and empiricism (what can be tested).
• Science seeks explanations for natural phenomena, answering the question 'Why.'
• Examples include explaining natural disasters, mirages, refraction, children wearing shoes backward, and hysteria.
• Science adheres to the concept of Cause → Effect.
• Explanations lead to hypotheses, theories, and laws, such as:
  • Newton's Law of Gravity
  • Snell's Law of Refraction
  • Einstein's Law

PseudoScience

• Pseudoscience is false science and not a rational science.
• Examples include astrology, myths, alternative medicine, meditation, and spiritualism.

Teknologi (Technology)

• Technology addresses the question 'How' and produces products or techniques to solve problems; for instance:
  • How to overcome flood problems in Shah Alam or Kuala Lumpur (Solutions: SMART Tunnel, retention ponds, river enlargement, household retention).
  • How to overcome rising oil prices (Solutions: biofuel, batteries, solar power, water + petrol, fuel savers).
  • How to overcome increased electricity bills (Solution: electricity-saving devices).

Perbezaan Sains dan Teknologi (Differences Between Science and Technology)

Perkaitan Sains dan Teknologi (Relationship Between Science and Technology)

• Technology predates science.
  • Axes, boats, and pyramids are technologies that didn't require scientific knowledge.
  • Early technology was created without scientific knowledge.
• Science began with the Greeks, who developed scientific thought and philosophy.
• Rome produced technology: buildings, coliseums, theaters, roads.
• Technology requires science.

Sains Yunani vs Sains Moden (Greek Science vs. Modern Science)

• Examples of Greek Science:
  • Men have more teeth than women.
  • Men's brains are larger than women's.
  • The king bee is male.
  • Heavy objects fall faster than light objects.

The Female in Aristotle's Biology (Robert Mayhew)

• Aristotle made seemingly bizarre statements about the differences between males and females.
• For example, he said that females have fewer teeth than males.
• Some scholars believe Aristotle applied biased generalizations rather than engaging in empirical research.
• Aristotle referred to queen bees as kings.

Scientific Method

• The scientific method seeks to understand why things happen as they do in the natural world.
• Until the mid-19th century, little was known about infectious diseases.
• In the mid-1800s, Ignaz Semmelweis discovered that the death rate from childbed fever was five times higher in the hospital ward where patients were treated by physicians than in another ward where women were seen only by midwives.
• Semmelweis speculated that childbed fever is caused by something that physicians come into contact with in the autopsy room and then inadvertently transmit to pregnant women, which he termed cadaveric matter.

Scientific Method (pg2)

1. Identify a problem: Start with a ‘Why’ question.
2. State a hypothesis: an unproven assumption or intellectual guess.
3. Perform an experiment & observation.
4. Record, analyze data, draw a conclusion, and publish a report.
5. If result of experiment = hypothesis, accept the hypothesis.
6. Else reject the hypothesis and reformulate a new one.
7. Proposed an explanation and a theory that X causes Y.

Scientific Method - Example 1

• Kanak-Kanak Pakai Kasut Terbalik (Children wear shoes in reverse)
  • Identify a problem: Why do children wear slippers in reverse?
  • State a hypothesis: Because it is not easy to take off from the feet.
  • Perform experiment & observation: Create slippers that are not easy to take off and tested on a group of children.
  • Record, analyse data, draw a conclusion and publish report: The findings are published in a journal.
  • Proposed explanation & a theory: The hypothesis is accepted as a theory to explain why children wear slippers in reverse.

Scientific Method - Example 2

• Kajian Gamat (Sea Cucumber research)
  • Identify a problem: Malays get sick because they like to eat things that are not nutritious such as budu, cencalok, tempoyak, belancan and gamat.
  • State a hypothesis: Gamat has a negative impact on health.
  • Perform the experiment & observation: Gamat was tested on mice, and the result was not the same as the hypothesis. Then, the hypothesis is rejected or modified.
  • Change the hypothesis: Gamat has a positive effect on health.
  • Perform the experiment & observation: Gamat was tested on mice with wounds. The wounds on the mice healed quickly.
  • Record, analyse data, draw a conclusion and publish report: The findings are published in a journal and can be used to support or criticize findings.
  • Proposed explanation and a theory: Gamat can heal wounds.

Scientific Method - Placebo Effect

• The placebo effect is when the mind influences behavior.
• In an example, regular flavored water is presented as a tonic.

Scientific Method - Observation & Experiment

• Observation is a key component of the scientific method.
• James Peebles, Nobel Prize winner (2019) stated that theory is empty without observation and theoretical discovery is meaningless without evidence.

1.3 Induction

• Induction is reasoning from particulars to general (universal), from the parts to the whole, from a limited number of specific facts (observations) to a general conclusion.
• It involves drawing general conclusions from limited observations and experimental results.

Example of Induction 1 - Tongkat Ali

• Particulars (Experimental results):
  • Ali drinks Tongkat Ali → strong.
  • Abu drinks Tongkat Ali → strong.
  • Kassim drinks Tongkat Ali → strong.
  • Salmah drinks Tongkat Ali → strong.
  • Fatimah drinks Tongkat Ali → strong.
• General conclusion: Tongkat Ali gives strength.

Example of Induction 2 - Brazil

• Particulars (Observations):
  • Brazil vs France → Brazil wins.
  • Brazil vs Argentina → Brazil wins.
  • Brazil vs England → Brazil wins.
  • Brazil vs Italy → Brazil wins.
  • Brazil vs Korea → Brazil wins.
• General conclusion: Brazil is a strong team.

Example of Induction 3 - Logam (Metal)

• Particulars (Experimental results):
  • Iron expands when heated.
  • Aluminum expands when heated.
  • Copper expands when heated.
  • Gold expands when heated.
• General conclusion: All metals expand when heated.

Example of Induction 4 - Bahasa (Language)

• Particulars (Study results):
  • Sabit, Kerambit, Cubit, Terbit, Bimbit, Ketumbit
• General conclusion: The ending 'bit' in Malay means small.

Example of Induction 5 - Gerrymandering

• Massachusetts + salamander, from the supposed similarity between a salamander and the shape of a new voting district in a map

Example of Induction 6 - Bahasa (Language)

• PEMERHATIAN KEPADA KESIMPULAN (Observation to Conclusion)
  • Pemerhatian: sabit, kerambit, ketumbit, terbit, bimbit, cubit, bukit, rakit, ungkit, sakit, jangkit, bangkit, melekit, pipit, sempit, sumpit, kepit, cepit, sepet, sepit, apit, parit, buncit, runcit, pancit, melecit, bintik, batik, cantik, detik, jentik, lentik, petik, ketik, itik, titik, bantut, kontot, catut, balik, belek, bilik, celik, golek, adik, bodek, cerdik, gedik, gelek, pendek, tindik
    • Kesimpulan umum: Akhiran bit, kit, pit, cit, tik, tut, lik, dik - menandakan kecil (General conclusion: The ending bit, kit, pit, cit, tik, tut, lik, dik - means small.)

Induction - Parts to Whole

• Daun, Bunga, Ranting, Buah, Dahan, Cabang, Batang, Akar
• biji = whole (seed = whole)
• _Hamzah Fansuri, "The seed is the treasure. In it there are roots, stems, branches, limbs, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruit - all complete in one seed."

Induction - Istaqra'

• اسْتَقْرَأَ : اسْتَخْرَجَ مَبْدَأَ عَامَّا مِنْ تَفَاصِيلَ مُختلفة

• menyimpulkan suatu kaedah umum daripada pelbagai contoh/uraian khusus (concluding a general rule from various specific examples/descriptions)

• to generalize, derive a general principle from particulars

• Al-Ghazali mendefinisikan istiqra' sebagai berikut (defines istiqra' as follows):

  • أما الاستقراء فهو عبارة عن تصفح أمور جزئية ليحكم بحكمها على أمر يشتمل تلك المجزئيات
  • _Artinya: (Meaning:)
  • "Adapun istiqra' adalah rumusan tentang penelitian terhdap perkara-perkara partikularistik, untuk menghukumi dengan hukumnya sesuatu yang mencakup partikular-partikular itu."

Induction - Kata akar Istaqra'

• KATA AKAR Mengumpul juzuk2 menjadi satu
• قَرَأ
• Membaca
• قَرَأ الشَّيْء: معهمقون اي اكن سوات. (He read the thing, i.e. he made it real.)
• قَرَأَ الْكِتَابَ: ممباج اي اكن كتاب. (He read the book, i.e. he took from the book.)
• قَرَأ 1. 3, [aor. 2,] inf. n. 3, IIe collected together the thing; put it, or drew it, together; (S, O, K, TA ;) part to part, or portion to portion. (S, O, TA.) [This seems to be generally regarded as the primary signification.] Hence

1.4 Deduction

• Deduction is reasoning from general to particulars, from universal/whole to specific facts.
• Once a general knowledge (law or theory) is available, it can be drawn to make predictions and offer explanations.
• It involves reasoning from general conclusions/laws to specific instances.

Examples of Deduction

• General conclusion (Law/Theory/Whole):
  • Tongkat Ali gives strength
• Prediction (Particulars/Parts):
  • Pak Mat minum Tongkat Ali ® ?
  • Ah Chin minum Tongkat Ali ® ?
  • Samy minum Tongkat Ali ® ?
• General conclusion (Law/Theory/Whole):
  • Brazil is a strong team
• Prediction (Particulars/Parts):
  • Brazil vs Malaysia ® ?
  • Brazil vs Singapore ® ?
  • Brazil vs China ® ?
• General conclusion (Law/Theory/Whole):
  • All metals expand when heated
• Prediction (Particulars/Parts):
  • Besi dipanaskan ® ? (Iron heated)
  • Aluminium dipanaskan ® ? (Aluminium heated)
  • Emas dipanaskan ® ? (Gold heated)

Deduction - Qias

• Deduksi (Deduction)
  • قِيَاس Qias
  • Analogi (tamsil) (Analogy (example))
  • Syllogism
  • Perumpamaan (Parable)
  • Penyerupaan (comparison) (Resemblance (comparison))
  • According to rule

Deduction - Qias

• قياس: مُقَارَنَةٌ (comparison)
• comparison; analogy
• قيَاسَ شَرِيعَةٌ إسلامية) qiyas (pengambilan hukum dengan analogi) (Islamic Sharia) qiyas (taking law by analogy))
• juristic reasoning (deduction) by analogy; analogy

Deduction - Aristotle

• Deduksi Aristotle
• Hukum Umum: Lelaki lebih kuat daripada perempuan (General Law: Men are stronger than women)
  • ikut hukum umum(according to common law)
  • Analogi (Analogy)
    • Gigi lelaki > Gigi perempuan (Men's teeth > Women's teeth)
    • Otak lelaki > Otak perempuan (Men's brains > Women's brains)
    • Raja lebah jantan (King bee male)
    • Berat jatuh dulu daripada ringan (Weight falls before light)
• Objek berat jatuh dulu (Heavy objects fall first)
  • Aristotle (300 sm)
  • Galileo (1500 m)
• Ibn Malka al-Baghdadi (1087-1165 m)
  • Centuries before Galileo, Ibn Malkā made it clear that free-falling bodies would have the same velocity if dropped in a vacuum.

Deduction - Aristotle

• ARISTOTLE - DEDUCTION
• The obvious objection to all this from the modern point of view is that there is little about the role of actual sensory experience in the acquisition of knowledge of how things work.
• Aristotle's logic was deductive and, although he took great interest in empirical data and his knowledge of natural phenomena, especially zoology and botany, was vast, apparently he never carried out any experiments.

Example of Deduction

• Hukum Umum: Lebih Besar Lebih Baik (General Law: Bigger is better)
  • Analogi :Telor besar lebih baik, Buah besar lebih baik, Tamar besar lebih baik, Ayam besar lebih baik, Bawang besar lebih baik, Ikan besar lebih baik, Udang besar lebih baik (Analogy: Big eggs are better, Big fruit is better, Big dates are better, Big chickens are better, Big onions are better, Big fish are better, Big shrimp are better)
• Hukum Umum: Putih lebih baik (General Law: White is better)
  • Juzuk : Orang putih hebat , Tepung putih, Gula putih, Garam putih, Beras putih, Bawang putih lebih putih (Parts: White people are great, White flour, White sugar, White salt, White rice, Garlic is whiter)

1.5 Kebenaran dalam Sains (Truth in Science)

• Bukan kebenaran muktamad (Not absolute truth)
• Bukan penjelasan yang sempurna (Not a perfect explanation)
• Suatu teori sains tidak bertahan lama (terus berubah) kerana boleh disangkal (refute/falsified) dengan penemuan/teori baharu (A scientific theory does not last long (constantly changing) because it can be refuted/falsified with new findings/theories)
• Suatu teori sains dianggap benar selagi ia berguna dan dapat menjelaskan dengan logik suatu fenomena (A scientific theory is considered true as long as it is useful and can logically explain a phenomenon)
• Teori Antonie Lavoiser disangkal setelah 20 tahun (Antonie Lavoiser's theory was refuted after 20 years)
• Uji kaji (Pariculars/parts)
  • Asid fosforus → oksigen + fosforus
  • Humphry Davy
• Kesimpulan umum (General Conclusion)
  • Semua asid mengandungi oksigen (All acids contain oxygen)
• 1789
• 1810
  • Asid Hidroklorik →Klorin + Hidrogen
  • Asid Garam Laut
• Menghitung Usia Alam dan Manusia(pg 176) (Calculating the Age of Nature and Man)
  • Pentarikhan Usia Fosil Berubah (Fossil Dating Age Changed)
    • Florisbad Afrika Selatan
      • 1932 Kaedah Radiokarbon=40,000 tahun
      • 1996 Kaedah Electron spin resonance = 260,000 tahun
• Ralat besar 2 kaedah berbeza (Large error in 2 different methods)
• T₁→T2 T3 T4-
• Never ending story

Embah Maridjan (pg 161)

• MERAPI 2006
• GEMPA BUMI YOGYAKARTA (YOGYAKARTA EARTHQUAKE)
  • 5000 MATI (5000 DEAD)
• Minuman Suplemen (SUPLLEMENT DRINK)
• MARUJAN JANUARY 2008
  • (KUAT (STRONG)
• MERAPI 2010
• WAFAT PADA RAKAAT KE 3 SOLAT MAGHRIB (DIED ON THE 3RD RAKAAT MAGHRIB PRAYER)
• TAPAK RUMAH EMBAH MARIDJAN (HOUSE SITE)
• WARUNG ANAK EMBAH MARIDJAN (CHILD STORE)
• anak EMBAH MARIDJAN (CHILD STORE EMBAR MARIDJAN)
• 50 KM DARI MERAPI (50 KM FROM MERAPI)

1.6 Ilmu Pengenalan & Ilmu Pengetahuan (Knowledge and Recognition)

• Ilmu Pengenalan& Ilmu Pengetahuan (Knowledge & Recognition)

• Ilmu Pengenalan (Recognition)

  • Kata akar Makrifah
    • surah al-A'raf
    • تَعَارُفٌ ta'aruf - berkenal-kenalan (get to know each other)

• عرفَانٌ irfan

• اعْتَرَافٌ 28 Acol iktiraf

• علمٌ sains (Science)

• Nabi Sulaiman(Prophet Solomon)

• kenal makrifah (know, Recognise)

• عَرَفَ

Tahu atau Kenal? (Know or Recognize?)

• 200 tahun?
• Ahli Sains Sains Pokok (The Scientists recognize Plant)
• Phd (Kerengga)
  • Tahu atau Kenal? (Know or Recognize?)
• Hijab (Veil)
  • Hijab dalam ilmu Pengetahuan (Veil in Knowledge)
    • kenal (know)
    • kasyaf terbuka hijab (open veil)
    • مَعْرِفَةٌ (knowledge)
    • Nabi Sulaiman(Prophet Solomon)
    • Hijab dalam Ilmu Pengenalan (Veil in Knowledge)
    • Wujudnya hijab antara Cimpenzi dengan Jane Godall.
    • Tahu
    • Komunikasi Sehala
• Sains & Embah Maridjan

Perbezaan Kenal & Tahu (Differences Between Know & Recognize)

• ilmu pengenalan & ilmu pengetahuan(knowledge and recognition)
  • Ilmu yang dinisbatkan sebagai 'pengenalan' itu lebih sempurna sifatnya dalam rangka perhubungan sejenis (Knowledge that is considered 'introduction' is more perfect in the context of similar relationships.)
  • ilmu pengenalan (introduction), sebab diberi (because it is given), diselidik (examined)samar-samar (vague)
• Appearance & Reality
• Phenomenon & Noumenon
  • Phenomenon: Appearance; Zahir til t2 t3 t4
  • Realiti Batin (Inner Reality)
• appearance - realiti
• kelihatan bengkok (seem bent)
• Sains = Ilmu Pengetahuan (Knowledge)
• Sains hanya tahu yang zahir/appearance/phenomenon (Science only knows the obvious/appearance/phenomenon)
• Sains tidak tahu yang batin/hakikat/noumenon(Does not know the hidden/truth/noumenon)
• Sifat sains samar-samar/tidak sempurna kebenarannya (The nature of science is vague/incomplete truth)
• Phenomenalisme

Appearance & Reality

• Jasad = Pepejal ? (Body = Solid?)
  • Jasad baru setiap tahun (The body is renewed yearly)
  • Wajah baru setiap 6 bulan (The face is renewed every 6 months)
  • Tulang baru setiap 3 bulan (Bones are renewed every 3 months)
  • Kulit baru setiap 5 minggu (Skin is renewed every 5 weeks)
  • Isi perut baru setiap 5 hari (The insides are renewed every 5 days)
• Harold Saxton Burr investigated electrical patterns in living things, called the electro-dynamic field of life, the Life Field, or simply the L-field.
• Jasad senantiasa berubah - Al-Attas (The body is ever changing Al-Attas)
• Kita ini senantiasa berubah. Setiap saat diri kita sudah lain daripada sekarang (Every moment of ourselves already different from now).
• Alam sentiasa berubah (Nature is ever changing)
• Jadi-Hapus-Jadi-Hapus (So-Disappear-So-Disappear)
• Seluruh isi alam ini jadi-hapus-jadi-hapus berterusan (Continuous So-Disappear-So-Disappear is nature)
• tl t2
• Setiap detik (Every moment)
• Kun fayakun
• Sama tak sama(Different not same)
• Allah
• cipta/jadi -hapus/fana(create/so destroy/gone)
• Sains hanya tahu phenomenon sahaja(Science only know phenomenon)
• Roh tidak Berubah - Al-Attas (The spirit does not change - Al-Attas)
• Tetapi dalam tiap-tiap saat jasad berubah itu, ada yang tidak berubah iaitu diri kita yang dinamakan roh atau soul itu (However, in every moment that the body changes, there is something that does not change, namely ourselves that is called the spirit or soul).
• Sains adalah Ilmu Pengetahuan(Science is knowledge)
• Samar-samar, tidak jelas(Vague, not clear)
• Hanya tahu yang zahir, phenomenon /appearance
• Tidak tahu hakikat benda itu yang sebenar- benarnya iaitu noumenon (reality)(Not knowing the truth of the matter that is true noumenon (reality))
• Kebenaran tidak sempurna (relative truth)(Imperfect truth (relative truth))
• Makrifah adalah Ilmu Pengenalan(Makrifah is the Science of Introduction)
  Gnosis, illuminative knowledge, ilmu laduni(Gnosis, knowledge illumination,)Anugerah yang allah berikan(The gift which Allah has bestowed),Bukan dipelajari tetapi dianugerahkan(We do not learn this kind only gifts),Terbukanya hijab(Revealed)Tahu hakikat(Understands the truth)

Ciri-ciri Sains (Characteristics of Science)

Reductionismo Repeatability (Replicable) Refutable/Falsified

Reductionism

Y = mx + c
Phenomena were reduced to mathematical formula
Formula Jatuh Bebas: $F = mg$

• Ramalan Cuaca dimudahkan dengan menggunakan Model MatematikWeather forecast is simplified by using mathematical models
• Abs Skill
• Roh + Jasad
  Kompleks
  Jasad sahaja
  Ringkas(Body Only)
• LimauWhole
  Vitamin C
  Parts

Vitamin

Whole lebih baik daripada Parts
VITAMIN C
KurmaVitamin 812
Repeatability (Replicable)
Anyone can repeat the experiment and get the same result
REPEATABILITY
the repeatability or consistency of the research

• Kuat

• Ahli Sains(Scientists)

• Pelajar(Students)

• Lin Kit Siang

• Ahmad Maslan

• Mat Sabu
  Non Replicable - Ilmu Makrifah
  Tidak boleh ditiru

• Pindah Sakit ke Kambing – Pulau Jawa, Indonesia Non Replicable – Ilmu Makrifah (pg279)
  Pernah dipraktikkan oleh Imam al-Tarmidzi untuk pemindahan sakit buah pinggang
  Refutable/Falsified
  Experiment enable other people to repeat the experiment and thus confirm or challenge their findings. (boleh dibantah/disangkal)

• Theories may be refuted/falsified by a new and contrary evidence.

• If a theory cannot be refuted (falsified), if there is no possible evidence that could ever prove they are wrong, then it is not scientific.

• Irrefutable theory cannot be scientific.

• Non Refutable / Falsified

  • Susah untuk diterima atau disangkal kerana tidak dapat dibuktikan secara saintifik
    KETAHUILAH 5 TANDA ANDA DIGANGGU Makhluk HALUS GANGGUAN JIN DALAM BADAN ANDA

• Andaian Sains

• Andaian dalam Sains (pg 12)

  • Materialism Causality Uncertainty
    Andaian dalam Sains
    Materialism Kepercayaan bahawa apa yang ada dalam alam ini hanyalah jirim Tidak percaya adanya roh, hantu, jin dan semua perkara yang bukan jirim Mempercayai bahawa perasaan, fikiran, mimpi dan semua fenomena mental adalah proses dan tindak balas kimia di dalam otak

• Andaian dalam Sains
  Causality (Cause-Effect) Sains mencari penjelasan sebab (cause) mengapa sesuatu fenomena itu berlaku. Contoh : Sebab (Cause) Akibat (Effect) : Hujan Selesema Ubat Sembuh Makan Kenyang Baja Pokok subur

• Andaian dalam Sains
  inDisebabkan sifat sains yang samar-samar, tidak jelas dan hanya tahu yang zahir sahaja
  Kelebihan & Keterbatasan Kaedah Sains

• Advantages of Scientific Method (pg 13)
  Logical, Repeatable and Objective, Self-correcting
  Advantages of Scientific MethodLogicalBoleh dilihat dan logik kerana berasaskan fakta dari pemerhatian dan ujikaji menggunakan kaedah induksi. Contoh: PemerhatianSalmah makan panadol Salmah sembuh pening kepalaAminah makan panadol Aminah sembuh pening kepalaKhatijah makan panadol Khatijah sembuh pening kepalaKesimpulan Umum (Konsep Sebab Akibat)Panadol Sembuh pening kepala
  Advantages of Scientific Method Repetable and Objective Boleh diulang oleh sesiapa pun dan hasil ujikaji tetap sama. Jawapannya bersifat objektif Contoh: Untuk mengkaji sama ada minuman bersifat asid dan alkali. Sekiranya kertas litmus bertukar dari merah ke biru, maksudnya minuman tersebut berasid, sebaliknya alkali. Ujikaji ini boleh diulang beberapa kali dan jawapannya tetap sama. Self-correcting Sains bersifat terbuka. Jika hasil ujikaji tidak sama dengan hipotesis, ahli sains menerima keputusan tersebut dan tidak akan mempertahankan hipotesisnya kerana tidak ada kepentingan peribadi.

• Limitations of Scientific Method (pg 14)
  Deal with Phenomenon (appearance)- The problem of inductionReductionismeHampered by techniques & instrumentCannot explain why thing as they areMetaphysicsValue (axiology)Not effective involving human being
  Science Paradigm
  Paradigm (pg16)Oxford English dictionaryA pattern or model, an exemplarA pattern of thinking
  Science ParadigmThe entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques and so on shared by the members of a given (scientific) communityThe set of practices that define a scientific discipline during a particular period of time (Thomas Kuhn)Eg. How is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct the experiment
  Paradigm = BoxThe box is analogous with paradigmThinking inside the box is analogous with thinking of normal scienceThinking outside the box is not a normal science
  History of Science300sm – 1500mSains AristotleGeocentric ParadigmNormal ScienceSelepas 1600mSains NewtonHeliocentric ParadigmNormal Science1500m –1600mScientific RevolutionParadigm Shift

• Geocentric ParadigmAristotelian ScienceBelief : Earth is the center of universeValues : Earth is hell, Heaven highest goodTechnique in Science : Deduction (no experiment and observation)

• Paradigm ShiftGiordano Bruno (1584)Mengatakan bahawa alam ini tidak terhingga luasnya dan Tuhan tidak menciptakan alam iniMencetuskan pertentangan antara sains dengan agama KristianDibakar hidup-hidup (1600)Galileo (1564 – 1642)Menyangkal Sains Aristotle yang serasi dengan ajaran KristianDikenakan tahanan rumahScience RevolutionShift from Geocentric to Heliocentric

• Heliocentric ParadigmNewton ScienceBelief : Sun is the center of universeValues : Hell and heaven not existTechnique in Science : Induction (based on experiment and observation)

• Empiricist ParadigmFounder : Francis Bacon (1561-1626)The Royal Society, EnglandSense experience (pancaindera) is the main source of knowledgeBased on observation and experimentation
  Rationalist ParadigmFounder : Descartes (1596 - 1650)France Academy of ScienceMind (minda) is the main source of knowledgeMathematical and abstract (Geometry, astronomy)Do not perform experiment