Module 3 — Critical Thinking & Problem-Solving

Lecture Context & Purpose

• Timestamp reference: "Five twenty two"—part of Module 3 on interpersonal skills for effective decision-making.

• Central thrust: mastering critical-thinking (CT) and problem-solving (PS) as deeper, reflective layers that parallel yet intensify the rational decision-making model introduced in Week 1.

• Agenda outlined by lecturer:

  • Define CT; walk through the process.

  • Surface typical barriers (biases, fallacies).

  • Tie CT to practical PS for better decisions.

Why Critical Thinking Matters in Decision-Making

• Moves us from surface-level reactions to evidence-based, context-sensitive judgments.

• Adds rigor to each phase of the rational model: identifying problems, generating options, selecting, and evaluating.

• Prevents premature closure, groupthink, and confirmation bias highlighted in the "decision-making bias" chapter.

Essential Dispositions / Checklist for Critical Thinkers

• Inquisitiveness – cultivated curiosity; constant questioning across domains.

• Concern to be Well-Informed – intrinsic motivation to gather accurate, comprehensive data.

• Alertness to CT Opportunities – mindfulness & presence to notice when deeper analysis is needed.

• Measured Self-Confidence – realistic belief in one’s reasoning skill, avoiding inflated overconfidence.

• Open-Mindedness – readiness to engage divergent worldviews; willingness to test personal assumptions.

• Flexibility – adaptability in opinions and approaches; readiness to update beliefs.

• Seeking to Understand Others – empathetic, non-defensive inquiry into others’ reasoning ("meeting of the minds").

• Fair-Mindedness – active awareness of one’s own biases, striving for balanced appraisal.

• Honesty – transparent acknowledgment of personal prejudices, stereotypes, egocentric tendencies.

• Prudence / Suspension of Judgment – resisting snap conclusions; allowing evidence to accumulate.

• Willingness to Reconsider & Revise – recognition that opinions are dynamic; iterative self-correction.

Working Definition (Graphic Summarized)

• CT = "purposeful, reflective judgment" that weighs:

  • Evidence

  • Context

  • Methods

  • Standards of quality

  • Conceptualizations & assumptions

• Goal: determine what to believe & what to do through reasoned consideration.

Five-Step Critical-Thinking Process (mirrors Rational Model)

1. Identify the problem & set priorities.

2. Determine relevant information for deeper understanding.

3. Enumerate options & anticipate consequences.

4. Assess, synthesize & make a preliminary decision.

5. Scrutinize the process & self-correct (evaluation/learning loop).

Six Core CT Skill Domains

1. Interpretation – deriving meaning & significance.

   • Guiding questions: “What does this mean?”, “In context, what was communicated?”, “How can we categorize this?”

   • Caveat: meaning filtered through social conventions & personal experience ⇒ potential bias.

2. Analysis – parsing relationships among ideas, evidence, arguments.

   • Probe: “What reasons support this?”, “What assumptions underlie that conclusion?”, “Pros & cons?”

3. Inference – drawing logical conclusions, building/test hypotheses.

   • Probe: “Given X, what can we conclude or rule out?”, “What additional info is required?”, “Alternate assumptions?”

4. Evaluation – judging credibility & logical strength.

   • Examine source trustworthiness vs. content veracity; detect logical fallacies; gauge confidence level.

5. Explanation – articulating coherent, evidence-backed rationale.

   • Ask for data specifics, methodology, reasoning chain, decision criteria.

6. Self-Regulation – monitoring & adjusting one’s cognition/emotion.

   • Meta-questions: “Is our definition precise?”, “Did we follow methodology?”, “What are we missing?”, “Reconcilable inconsistencies?”

Common Barriers & Obstacles

A. Logical Fallacies (non-exhaustive core list)

• Straw Man

• Ad Hominem (appeal to the person)

• Appeal to Popularity (ad populum)

• Appeal to Tradition

• Genetic Fallacy

• Equivocation (shifting meaning of terms)

• Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)

• False Dilemma (either-or)

• Begging the Question (circular reasoning)

• Hasty Generalization

• Slippery Slope

• Composition & Division errors

B. Cognitive & Data Biases

• Present across all CT steps—collection, assumption formation, interpretation, conclusion.

• Examples: confirmation bias, self-fulfilling prophecy, overconfidence, social conditioning.

Four Foundational Habits to Strengthen CT

1. Ask Basic Questions – What/How/Why? What are we overlooking?

2. Relentlessly Question Assumptions – Are they still relevant? Could a different premise fit?

3. Monitor Personal Biases & Heuristics – Recognize mental shortcuts’ influence.

4. Reverse Causality & Relationships – If X \rightarrow Y seems true, test Y \rightarrow X (e.g., job performance → job happiness).

Practical Tools Supporting CT

• Checklists – offload routine steps from working memory; free cognition for deeper analysis.

• Mindfulness – enhances self-observation of thoughts & emotions; reduces knee-jerk bias.

• Brainstorming (Critical Brainstorming) – expansive option generation; combats premature convergence.

Problem-Solving Techniques Integrated with CT

• Solution-Focused Mind-set – spend cognitive resources on how to fix rather than on lamenting the problem.

• “5 Whys” Root-Cause Analysis – iterative questioning to trace issue to origin.

  • Each “why” peels back a causal layer: \text{Effect}1 \xleftarrow{?} \text{Cause}1 \xleftarrow{?} \dots \xleftarrow{?} \text{Root Cause}

• Occam’s Razor – prefer simpler explanations unless complexity adds explanatory power.

• Alternative Listing – exhaust possibilities to avoid tunnel vision.

• Lateral Thinking – “digging another hole” instead of deeper same hole; break from path dependence.

• Possibility Language – “What if…?”, “Suppose…”, encourages creativity and openness.

Connections to Previous & Later Modules

• Builds upon earlier content on decision-making biases, rational decision model.

• Foreshadows upcoming units on mindfulness (Module X) and brainstorming (Module V).

Ethical & Practical Implications

• CT demands honesty about prejudices → fosters inclusive, respectful dialogue.

• Fair-mindedness & willingness to revise help bridge ideological divides, advancing collaborative solutions.

• Rigorous CT underpins responsible leadership, sustainable policies (e.g., environmental impact checks).

Numerical / Structural References Summary

• 5-step CT process

• 6 essential CT skill domains

• 4 habit strategies for improvement

• “5 Whys” loop in root-cause analysis

Take-Home: Critical thinking is not an optional add-on but the deep-running operating system for sound, ethical, and adaptive decision-making. Cultivate the dispositions, practice the six skill sets, guard against fallacies and biases, leverage supportive tools, and keep cycling through reflection-revision loops.