Roman Empire: Early to High Empire Study Notes

Trekking on Rome: From Republic to High Empire

Introduction to Roman Empire

  • Historical Progression: Transitioned from the Etruscans, through the Roman Republic, into the Early Empire, and then the High Empire.
  • Period Covered: Material encompasses very ancient Greece and the Cycladic Islands up to the end of the Roman Empire.
  • Core Theme: The pervasive use of persuasion and propaganda through art, which was highly political in Rome.
  • Artistic Style Evolution:
    • Roman Republic: Characterized by hyper-naturalism in depictions.
    • Early Empire: Shifted towards Greek idealization, a trend that would evolve over centuries.
  • Cultural Appropriation: Rome's vast geographic expansion led to the absorption and adaptation of diverse visual cultures. This Roman tradition of strong visual and figural representation is foundational for early Christianity.
  • Dating System: The calendar straddles BCE and CE. There is no year zero. The traditional starting point (Year 0) is allegorically marked by the birth of Christ (Anno Domini - Year of the Lord, now Common Era).

Early Empire: Augustus' Reign

  • Julius Caesar's Death: Assassinated in 44 ext{ BCE} on the steps of the Senate, having become a dictator and perceived tyrant.
  • Civil War: A 13-year period of civil war followed Caesar's death.
  • Octavian/Augustus: Caesar's grandson and adopted son, Octavian, emerged victorious. He adopted the title Augustus, signifying 'holy' or 'ruler'.
  • First Roman Emperor: Despite presenting his reign as a continuation of the Roman Republic, Augustus was, in truth, the first Roman Emperor.
  • Augustus of Prima Porta (20 ext{ BCE} bronze original, 1st century CE marble copy):
    • Idealization: Depicts Augustus, an older man, with youthful, idealized features, reflecting a return to Greek aesthetics.
    • Julian Family Myth: The Julian family (including Caesar and Augustus) propagated a myth connecting them to Rome's legendary founders, Romulus and Remus, through the goddess Venus and her son Aeneas (fugitive from Troy, father of an ancestor of Romulus and Remus).
    • Cupid's Significance: The presence of Cupid on the statue symbolizes Augustus' direct link to Rome's foundational myth and his natural succession to Roman rule.
    • Contrapposto: An immediate adoption of the Greek weight-shift stance, emphasizing classical ideals.
    • Orator's Gesture: Augustus' raised hand signifies the importance of public speaking in Roman public life as a means to win public support.
    • Augustus' Titles & Power: He positioned himself as the "first among equals":
      • Princeps: First Citizen.
      • Imperator: Commander-in-Chief (a title still used by modern presidents).
      • Pontifex Maximus: Chief Priest of the state religion.
    • Roman Polytheism: Ancient Rome was polytheistic (many gods), a common feature of ancient religions, contrasting with the rare monotheism of Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten. This is attributed to a rational breakdown of natural phenomena into individual deities.
    • Armor Narrative: The breastplate depicts Augustus receiving the standard from the Parthians, symbolizing their defeat and shame, and his establishment of peace.
    • Pax Augusta/Pax Romana: This sculpture heralded a period of peace (Pax means 'peace' in Latin) after decades of civil wars, initiated by Augustus. It became known as the Pax Romana when it lasted beyond his 200-year reign, marking a time of internal stability against 'barbarian' (non-Roman) invasions.
    • Sculptural Relief: Features a fairly high relief, detailing the narrative.
    • Contrast with Republican Style: Compared to Julius Caesar's bust, which showed hyper-naturalism, Augustus' portrait demonstrates idealization, depicting youth and divine connection over elderly wisdom.
  • Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) (13-9 ext{ BCE}, marble):
    • Pilasters: Decorative, flattened rectangular columns that evoke the idea of load-bearing columns without serving a structural purpose.
    • Propaganda: Like Augustus' armor, the altar emphasizes the peace and prosperity of his reign.
    • Classical Influences: Incorporates forms from Greek and Etruscan architecture, such as a single staircase for entry (similar to the Temple of Portunus) and a continuous frieze (reminiscent of the Parthenon).
    • Greek Meander/Key Pattern: A decorative motif dating back to very early ancient Greece, still in use.
    • Symbolism of Golden Age: Depicts Mother Earth with allegorical figures of air and water, signifying the golden age under Augustus, with garlands symbolizing prosperity.
    • Presence of Children: One of the earliest instances of children in public art in the Western world, promoting the idea of the