Outline: Prussia, Austria, and Russia in the 1740-1778 Period

Prussia: Origins, Army, and the Second Serfdom

• Brandenburg aftermath: the Thirty Years' War left Brandenburg-Prussia devastated; Frederick William wins diet consent to fund a standing army. In return, the nobility gains privileges, including the right to insert their peasants into serfdom (the second serfdom).
• Second serfdom: expands in Central and Eastern Europe in the seventeenth century to boost agricultural output for export to the West.
• 1667 taxation reform: nobility exempt from taxes; peasants taxed; diets reduced/eliminated; groundwork for absolutist rule.
• The Soldier King: Frederick William I implements a system where peasants rotate between land and army; about frac{2}{3} of the nobility were active or retired army officers.
• By 1740, roughly 0.80 of state revenue funded the army in peacetime; Brandenburg-Prussia earns the reputation: an army that happened to have a state.
• 1740 marks the start of Prussia’s aggressive posture under Frederick II (the Great), setting the stage for the War of the Austrian Succession.

Austria under Maria Theresa: Reformist, not Absolutist

• Inheritance crisis in 1740: Maria Theresa inherits a fiscally strained, militarily stretched Habsburg realm with weak ministers and limited political experience.
• War of the Austrian Succession (begins 1740) tests her resolve; by 1742 she retakes Upper Austria and pushes into Bavaria; Frederick II of Prussia seizes much of Silesia, breaching earlier agreements.
• 1748: War ends with a pragmatic settlement; Silesia remains in Prussia; Austria remains a premier imperial power but loses territorial depth.
• Reforms (mostly via negotiation with estates rather than absolutist decree):
  • Centralization: unite Austrian and Bohemian administrations; increase central budgeting and civil service.
  • Tax reform: pressure on nobility and clergy to contribute; estates taxed more broadly; diets used as bargaining partners rather than rubber stamps.
  • Military modernization: new field marshal; standardized training/equipment; higher pay; centralization of command away from local lords.
  • Institutions: established a civil service academy (and later a 1751 military school and a 1754 academy for diplomats).
  • Economic and administrative measures: support Bohemian/Moravian industries; expand mining in Transylvania; invest in Adriatic ports to offset Silesia losses.
• She avoids absolutism: reforms rely on estates and negotiated consent; her approach contrasts with the later more overt absolutism of Joseph II.
• 1756–1763: Seven Years' War broadens conflict; Austria aligns with France; Britain sides with Prussia; Russia exits before the end; outcome reinforces Austria–Prussia rivalry in German affairs.
• Family transition: Maria Theresa’s husband dies in 1765; son Joseph becomes co-regent and later emperor; domestic reforms continue under a more centralized approach as her health declines.

Catherine the Great and the Polish Question

• Peter III’s short reign ends with Catherine seizing power; Catherine moves from Lutheran to Orthodox to legitimize rule as defender of Orthodoxy beyond Russia’s borders.
• Courland and Poland: Catherine engages in strategic manipulation to extend influence over Poland-Lithuania, which suffers from weak central authority and the Liberum veto.
• 1764: Poland’s royal election – Stanisław August Poniatowski – surrounded by Russian troops; Russia and Prussia finance election to secure a friendly ruler.
• 1760s–1770s: Catherine uses a mix of reform pressure and military intervention to shape Poland’s fate; confederations (pro-Russian and pro-Catholic) erupt in 1767–1768, destabilizing the Commonwealth.
• 1768–1774: Russo-Turkish War unfolds as part of Russia’s broader strategy to project power in the region; Catherine declares defense of Orthodox Christians and expands Russian influence across the Black Sea region.
• 1772: First Partition of Poland – Austria 12 ext{%}, Prussia 5 ext{%}, Russia 13 ext{%} of the Commonwealth’s territory; Poland’s central authority collapses under external pressure.
• 1774: Treaty ends Russo-Turkish War; Crimea’s status remains contested, with Russia gaining influence in the region; Crimea later annexed in 1778.
• Catherine’s Poland policy demonstrates a three-way power game: Russia, Prussia, and Austria shaping a weak Poland to prevent reform and to secure border security. The approach foreshadows modern great-power intervention dynamics.

The Seven Years' War: Global Conflict and Local Consequences

• Timeline: 1756–1763; a truly global conflict pitting Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Spain against Prussia and Britain.
• Central European payoff: Prussia with Britain as its key ally. France and Austria invest heavily against Prussia; Russia exits mid-way following leadership change (Elizabeth’s death, 1762).
• Outcomes:
  • No major German territorial changes; Prussia retains Silesia (and more) and cements its status as a great power.
  • Britain gains global colonial advantages (e.g., Quebec against France).
  • For Austria, the war confirms the persistence of Prussia as a rival and the need for systemic reform.
• Aftermath reinforces the dual power dynamic in Central Europe between Austria and Prussia and accelerates state- and economy-building in both realms.

Enlightenment, Modernization, and the State

• All three polities—Prussia, Austria, and Russia—invoke Enlightenment principles to legitimize reform and expansion, but with different modalities:
  • Prussia and Russia adopt what is often called enlightened absolutism: central control paired with modernization reforms.
  • Austria under Maria Theresa pursues reform within a framework of negotiation with estates and traditional rights, not outright absolutist rule.
• Common thread: modernization, rational governance, and expansion of state capacity, even as each state pursued its own strategic and ideological goals.
• Final note: These three testaments reflect distinct principles of governance and provide the groundwork for the later long-running power balance in Europe. Joseph II’s reign will mark a shift toward more centralized authority and broader reforms beyond Maria Theresa’s approach.