U.S. Labor History 202: Craft Unions and Homestead

Key Questions

  • Unifying Demand of Workers in 1886:

    • What was the major, unifying demand workers made in 1886?

  • Employer Responses:

    • What did employers say or do in response to this demand?

  • Government Responses:

    • What did the government say or do in response to this demand?

The 8-Hour Movement and the 1886 Strikes

  • Date of Demonstration:

    • On May 1, 1886, over 300,000 workers in the United States participated in demonstrations advocating for an 8-hour workday.

    • Out of those participants, approximately 200,000 went on strike to support this demand.

  • Opposition from Knights of Labor:

    • National leadership of the Knights of Labor opposed these demonstrations and strikes; however, many local assemblies took the lead in striking actions.

  • Craft Unionists and Radicals:

    • Craft unionists, along with radicals such as anarchists and socialists, also played pivotal roles in leading strikes and demonstrations during this period.

The 8-Hour Movement in Chicago

  • Radical Activity in Chicago:

    • Radicals were notably active in Chicago during the 8-hour movement.

  • Leadership of Albert Parsons:

    • Albert Parsons, an anarchist activist and printer, led a significant march of 80,000 workers on May 1, 1886.

  • Strikes at McCormick Reaper Works:

    • Many workers were already on strike at the vast McCormick Reaper Works during this time.

  • Violence at the Factory:

    • On May 3, two strikers were killed when police intervened outside the McCormick factory, leading to escalated tensions.

  • Call for Protest:

    • In response to the violence, August Spies, a German-born anarchist, organized a public protest at Haymarket Square on the evening of May 4.

The Haymarket, Chicago, May 4, 1886

  • Attempted Dispersal of Protest:

    • When Chicago police moved to disperse the protest at Haymarket, an unidentified individual threw a bomb.

  • Casualties of the Explosion:

    • The explosion resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and four civilians during the ensuing violence.

  • Arrests of Anarchists:

    • Seven anarchists, including Parsons and Spies, were arrested, tried, and sentenced to death for the bomb plot, despite a lack of direct evidence linking them to the bomb itself.

    • Another suspect, anarchist Rudolph Schnaubelt, was indicted but escaped the country before the trial.

    • Other theories have emerged regarding potential suspects, including disgruntled workers and alleged agent provocateurs.

The Haymarket Affair and its Legacy

  • Martyrdom of Anarchists:

    • The condemned anarchists were regarded as martyrs by labor activists. This led to the establishment of May Day as a day of commemoration in their honor.

  • Public Perception:

    • Conversely, many middle and upper-class Americans viewed them as violent criminals.

  • Employer and Government Response:

    • The Haymarket Affair allowed employers and government officials to intensify crackdowns on labor organizations, notably the Knights of Labor.

  • Continued Unionization:

    • Despite the decline of Knights of Labor, workers persisted in forming unions throughout the late 1880s and 1890s, opting for newer organizations.

Legacy of the Haymarket Affair: May Day

  • Commemoration Events:

    • Many commemorate the thirteenth anniversary of the deaths of the Chicago Martyrs with events such as demonstrations organized by various labor organizations.

  • International Workers' Day:

    • May 1st is now recognized as International Workers' Day (May Day), marked by various labor and social justice movements worldwide.

Craft Unionism

  • Definition of Craft Unionism:

    • Craft unionism refers to labor unions that organize workers based on their specific trades or skills.

  • Development of Craft Unionism:

    • It became the dominant form of trade unionism by the late 1800s due to its focus on skilled labor and concerted efforts to improve working conditions within specific industries.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

  • Foundation of AFL:

    • The AFL was founded as an organization comprised of separate craft unions. It stands as the largest labor federation in the United States and Canada today, having merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1955 to form the AFL-CIO.

  • Union Composition:

    • The AFL included unions representing skilled workers such as carpenters, operating engineers, masons, ironworkers, and machinists, while many unskilled or semi-skilled workers, including most women and people of color, remained excluded.

  • Growth of AFL in the Late 1800s:

    • The decline of the Knights of Labor, coupled with the marginalization of socialist and anarchist movements, facilitated the growth of AFL unions during this era.

Samuel Gompers

  • Background:

    • Samuel Gompers was a 36-year-old English immigrant and cigarmaker who became the founding president of the AFL in 1886, serving until his death in 1924.

  • Vision for Labor’s Aspirations:

    • Gompers articulated a vision for labor which included the pursuit of a better society. He famously stated, "What does labor want? … We want more school houses and less jails; more books and less arsenals; more learning and less vice; more constant work and less crime; more leisure and less greed; more justice and less revenge; in fact, more of the opportunities to cultivate our better natures, to make manhood more noble, womanhood more beautiful and childhood more happy and bright. These in brief are the primary demands made by the Trade Unions in the name of labor."

Business Unionism

  • Definition and Approach:

    • Craft unionism as advocated by Samuel Gompers and AFL leaders focused on business unionism, wherein skilled workers organized to negotiate for better pay, benefits, and working conditions without resorting to radical political demands.

  • Features of Business Unionism:

    • Business unionism required members to stay current with union dues, involved comprehensive financial and record-keeping practices, and introduced top-down organizing methods.

  • Role of Business Representatives:

    • The chief leader in a local craft union often took on the title of business representative, who would negotiate with employers from a position of equality during contract discussions.

  • Employer Benefits:

    • In exchange for wages and benefits negotiated by unions, employers secured a consistent supply of skilled labor.

  • Goals and Tactics of Craft Unions:

    • Craft unions aimed to monopolize jobs within their trade and geographical jurisdiction, but were also willing to engage in boycotts and strikes as militant tactics.

Homestead vs. Labor: The Conflict in 1892

  • Union Achievements Prior to 1892:

    • The AFL's Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) had successfully negotiated substantial pay increases for skilled members at Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Mill in 1889, which saw wages one-third higher than those at neighboring mills.

  • Frick’s Lockout:

    • In 1892, rather than negotiate a new contract, Henry Clay Frick, Carnegie’s partner, locked out union workers, shut down the mill, and announced intentions to reopen with non-union labor while Carnegie was out of the country in Scotland.

The Battles at Homestead, July 6, 1892

  • Escalation of Conflict:

    • Frick hired hundreds of armed guards from the Pinkerton Detective Agency to protect strikebreakers during the conflict.

  • Violence Encountered:

    • A violent clash ensued on July 6, during which nine strikers and seven Pinkerton agents were killed, along with many others wounded.

  • Outcome of the Conflict:

    • Despite the Pinkertons' surrender, Frick and Carnegie succeeded in bringing in state militia to restore operations with strikebreakers, leading to the reopening of the mill.

    • This incident marked a significant defeat for the AA and highlighted the limitations of craft unionism when confronting adversaries with substantial financial resources and political influence.