grammar and punctuation 1

Understanding Verbs and the Tense Trick

  • Definition of a Verb: A verb is not solely an action word. A more effective way to identify a verb is by understanding that it controls the tense of a sentence.

  • The Tense Trick: To find the true verb in a sentence, change the tense to the past, present, or future. The word that changes to reflect the new time period is the primary verb.

  • Examples of Tense Change:
      - Initial sentence: "Sarah is swimming."
      - Past tense: "Sarah was swimming."
      - Future tense: "Sarah will be swimming."
      - In these examples, the word that changes is the word "is" (to "was" or "will be"), identifying it as the verb.

  • Warning Regarding $I\,n\,g$ Words: Words ending in $I\,n\,g$ (such as "swimming") cannot function as the main verb of a sentence on their own. They must be paired with "to be" verbs to function within the sentence structure.

To Be Verbs and Helping Verbs

  • To Be Verbs List: These include "is," "are," "am," "was," "were," and "will be."

  • Classification: "To be" verbs are often referred to as helping verbs. However, when paired with an $I\,n\,g$ word, the "to be" verb is the primary verb because the $I\,n\,g$ word cannot stand alone.

  • Present Tense To Be Verbs:
      - "am" (Used with "I")
      - "are" (Used with "you," "they," "we")
      - "is" (Used with "he," "she," "it")

  • Past Tense To Be Verbs:
      - "were" (Used with "you," "they," "we")
      - "was" (Used with "I," "he," "she," "it")

  • Future Tense To Be Verbs:
      - Use the word "will," specifically "will be."

Identifying Subjects in a Sentence

  • Subject Definition: The subject of a sentence answers the question "who?" or "what?" in relation to the identified verb.

  • Procedure for Finding the Subject:
      - 11. Identify the verb first.
      - 22. Ask "Who or what did [verb]?"

  • Examples:
      - Sentence: "Sarah is swimming."
      - Verb: "is."
      - Question: "Who or what is?" Answer: Sarah. Sarah is the subject.
      - Sentence: "Birds flew from the tree."
      - Verb: "flew."
      - Question: "Who or what flew?" Answer: Birds. Birds is the subject.
      - Sentence: "When studying, Matt eats popcorn."
      - Verb: "eats."
      - Question: "Who or what eats?" Answer: Matt. Matt is the subject.

Phrases versus Clauses

  • Clause: Contains both a subject and a verb unit.
      - Examples: "She ran"; "Because he stayed up all night"; "They are singing."

  • Phrase: Missing either a subject, a verb, or both.
      - Example 11: "While washing the dishes." (The $I\,n\,g$ word "washing" does not count as a main verb, and there is no other verb present).
      - Example 22: "Even when traveling with no passport and very little luggage." (The word "traveling" is an $I\,n\,g$ word and cannot count as a verb; no other verb exists).
      - Example 33: "Jogged for an hour." (The word "jogged" is a verb, but there is no subject present).

Independent and Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses

  • Independent Clauses: These contain a subject-verb unit and can stand alone as complete sentences.
      - Analogy: Think of an independent adult who can live alone or with others.
      - Examples: "She stayed up all night studying"; "Mike slept." (Even short sentences like "Mike slept" constitute an independent clause).

  • Dependent Clauses: Also known as subordinate clauses, these contain a subject and a verb but also include a subordinator.
      - Analogy: Think of a dependent child who must be attached to an independent adult.
      - Subordinators: Words like "because," "until," "while," "when," "although," and "since."
      - Dependency Mechanism: The presence of the subordinator prevents the clause from being a complete sentence. For example, "She stayed up all night" is independent, but "Because she stayed up all night" is dependent.

  • Punctuation Rules for Combining Clauses:
      - Formula 1: Dependent Clause (DC) + Comma + Independent Clause (IC). Example: "Since she stayed up all night, she was tired the next day."
      - Formula 2: Independent Clause (IC) + Dependent Clause (DC). No comma is needed because the subordinator acts as a "cushion." Example: "She was tired the next day since she stayed up all night."

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

  • Prepositions: Small words that typically indicate location or time. Examples: "on," "in," "at," "under," "around," "beneath," "by," "behind," and "of."

  • Phrases: Examples include "around the corner," "at noon," and "on the shelf."

  • Sentence Example: "The cat slept under the table by the door."
      - Prepositions: "under," "by."
      - Prepositional Phrases: "under the table," "by the door."

Who, Which, and That Phrases

  • Identification: Clauses beginning with "who," "which," or "that" are often used to add detail but do not contain the main subject or verb of the sentence.

  • Simplification Strategy: Temporarily remove the "who, which, that" phrase to focus on the core subject and verb and ensure they agree.

  • Examples:
      - "One idea which you might like is to take a day off." (Core: One idea is to take a day off).
      - "The boy who caught the fish that got away had the best story." (Core: The boy had the best story).

Coordinating Conjunctions, Subordinators, and Transitions

  • Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS): For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
      - These are "sticky words" that hold sentence parts together.
      - Formal Writing Rule: Do not start sentences with FANBOYS in formal essays unless quoting someone. This is more flexible in creative writing.

  • Subordinators: Examples include "although," "even though," "whereas," "because," "since," and "while."
      - Analogy: A person who refuses orders is "insubordinate." Similarly, a subordinator makes a clause "subordinate" or dependent on a parent (independent) clause.

  • Transitions: Used for flow and connection. Examples: "however," "as a result," "in addition," "first," "second," and "finally."
      - Important Distinction: Transitions are NOT subordinators. They are punctuated differently. Confusing them (e.g., treating "although" as a transition) often leads to fragments.

Identifying and Avoiding Sentence Fragments

  • Definition of a Fragment: A phrase or dependent clause that is punctuated as if it were a full sentence.

  • Strategy for Identification: Cross out prepositional phrases, transitions, $I\,n\,g$ words, and "who/which/that" phrases. If what remains does not have a subject-verb unit, it is a fragment.

  • Practice Examples:
      - "Buying groceries on the way home.": Cross out "buying" ($I\,n\,g$) and "on the way" (prepositional). Remaining: "groceries home." This is a Fragment.
      - "The neighbors down the street in the blue house enjoy playing loud music after dark.": Cross out "down the street," "in the blue house," "playing," and "after dark." Remaining: "neighbors enjoy." This is a Complete Sentence.
      - "Animals in large cages, which are at the back of the pet store.": Cross out prepositional and "which" phrases. Remaining: "animals." This is a Fragment.

Detailed Comma Rules

  • Joining Independent Clauses: Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction ($IC, + FANBOYS + IC$).
      - Comma Splice Error: Putting only a comma between two independent clauses (e.g., "Heather stuck her tongue out at Cassie, Cassie threw a piece of macaroni at Heather"). This must be fixed by adding a coordinating conjunction or using a period.

  • Introductory Elements: Use a comma after introductory clauses, phrases, or words.
      - Clause: "Although Melissa has saved all summer, she still didn't have enough money…"
      - Phrase: "Trying to get a raise and allowance, she made a list…"
      - Word: "For example, she added scrubbing the toilet…"

  • Nonessential Elements: Use "comma handles" to surround information that can be removed without changing the basic meaning of the sentence.
      - Example: "The students, who were in honors, went to the community art show." (Nonessential).
      - Example: "The students who are in honors must get good grades…" (Essential; no commas used).

  • Series: Use commas to separate items in a list. A comma before the final "and" is optional but recommended for clarity in complex lists.

Quotation Marks and Correspondence

  • Quote Formulas:
      - Formula 1: Explanatory words, "Quoted words." (Example: Mike asked, "When is our next spelling test?")
      - Formula 2: "Quoted words," explanatory words. (Example: "We have a test every two weeks," replied the teacher.)
      - Formula 3: "Quoted start," explanatory words, "quoted continuation." (Example: "Since it's been almost two weeks," a student said, "we better be ready.")

  • Punctuation Inside Quotes: Commas and periods generally go inside the quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points can replace commas at the end of quoted speech.

  • Dates:
      - Month, Day, Year: Place a comma after the day (e.g., June 1111, 19721972).
      - Day of week, Month, Day, Year: Place a comma after the day of the week and the number of the day (e.g., Sunday, June 1111, 19721972).

  • Greetings and Closings:
      - Use a comma after the greeting (e.g., "Dear sirs,") and the closing (e.g., "Sincerely,").
      - A colon can be used for very formal greetings.

Questions & Discussion

  • Identifying the Primary Verb Activity:
      - "Birds flew from the tree": Change to "Birds fly" or "Birds will fly." Verb is flew.
      - "The birds are flying from the tree": Change to "The birds were flying" or "The birds will be flying." Verb is are.
      - "We are traveling this summer": Change to "We were traveling" or "We will be traveling." Verb is are.
      - "When studying, Matt eats popcorn": Change to "Matt ate" or "Matt will eat." Verb is eats.

  • Subject Identification Practice:
      - "Birds flew from the tree": Who flew? Birds.
      - "Birds are flying from the tree": Who or what are? The birds.
      - "We are traveling this summer": Who are? We.
      - "When studying, Matt eats popcorn": Who eats? Matt.

  • Identifying Clauses Activity:
      - "She studied for 33 hours last night": Independent Clause.
      - "Because she wanted to pass the test": Dependent Clause (Subordinator: because).
      - "Since the test was worth 100100 points": Dependent Clause (Subordinator: since).
      - "She felt very prepared": Independent Clause.
      - "However, she was very tired": Independent Clause. Note: "However" is a transition, not a subordinator.

To find the true verb in a sentence, you can play a little game. Try changing the time of the sentence to the past (like it already happened), present (like it's happening now), or future (like it's going to happen later).

For example, if you have the sentence "Sarah is swimming":

  • In the past, you can say "Sarah was swimming" (this means it already happened).

  • In the future, you can say "Sarah will be swimming" (this means it will happen later).

The word that changed from "is" to "was" or "will be" is the true verb. It's like a magic word that tells us when the action is happening!

Clauses that start with "who," "which," or "that" are special groups of words used to add details. These phrases don’t have the main subject or action of the sentence.

Simplifying Clauses

To make it easier, just remove the "who, which, that" part and see what the main subject and action are.

  • For example, in the sentence, "One idea which you might like is to take a day off," if we remove "which you might like," we get the important part: "One idea is to take a day off." This shows us that "One idea" is the main subject.

  • Another example is, "The boy who caught the fish that got away had the best story." If we simplify it to "The boy had the best story," we see that "The boy" is the subject.

Coordinating Conjunctions and Subordinators

  • Coordinating Conjunctions: These are words that connect parts of sentences, and they include: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. We can remember this with FANBOYS!

    • Tip: Avoid starting formal sentences with FANBOYS unless quoting someone. In creative writing, it’s more relaxed.

  • Subordinators: Words like "although," "because," and "since" that help connect ideas, but they make one part of the sentence dependent on another.

Sentence Fragments

A fragment is a part of a sentence that isn’t complete. We can find these by crossing out extra words. For example:

  • In "Buying groceries on the way home," if we remove "Buying" and "on the way," we are left with "groceries home," which is missing the action.

  • A complete sentence can be shown in, "The neighbors down the street enjoy playing loud music," which has a subject and action.

Comma Rules

  1. Joining Independent Clauses: When you have two full sentences together, use a comma with a FANBOYS to connect them.

    • Example: "I like apples, and I like bananas."

  2. Introductory Elements: Put a comma after phrases that start sentences, like "After lunch, we went to play."

  3. Nonessential Elements: If you can remove a part of a sentence without changing the meaning, use commas around it. "My dog, who is very fluffy, loves to play."

Quotation Marks and Correspondence

  • When quoting someone, we have special ways to punctuate:

    • Mike asked, "When is our next spelling test?"

    • In letters, use a comma after greetings like "Dear Grandma," and closings like "Sincerely,".