Locating and Incorporating Supporting Materials

Locating and Incorporating Supporting Materials

  • Opening quote: "A great part of the information I have was acquired by looking something up and finding something else on the way." — Franklin P. Adams

  • Chapter objectives

    • Describe advanced information-seeking skills
    • Develop a research strategy
    • Incorporate sources and evidence as supporting material into your speeches
    • Evaluate supporting materials

  • Why this matters

    • Topic relevance to you and your audience
    • Strategies to locate information on topics
    • Credible supporting material bolsters credibility and audience persuasion

  • Advanced information seeking (information literacy)

    • Core components: universal skills for researching and evaluating information
    • Direct public-speaking relevance: becoming an advanced information seeker
    • Key abilities:
    • Determine what information you need
    • Access information effectively and efficiently
    • Evaluate information critically
    • Use and incorporate information ethically and legally
    • These strategies apply across research situations in and out of the classroom

  • 7.1 Knowledge PPK (homework prompts)

    • Homework: Describe the advanced information-seeking skill set
    • Homework: How can becoming information literate and an advanced information seeker help you as a consumer make decisions?

Developing a Research Strategy

  • Research findings on credibility and search behavior

    • Students want credible, relevant sources but struggle with where to search
    • The networked information environment is complex and requires understanding how it functions
    • Information is stored/accessed in many ways (layers of the web)
    • Open Web: freely available information
    • Hidden Web: requires subscription or account access
    • A solid research strategy helps identify which supporting materials are needed for speeches

  • The key steps in developing a research strategy (Figure 7.1)

    • Select a Topic
    • Conduct background research to gain more knowledge about a topic
    • Consult the text and ask for instructor or librarian assistance
    • Prepare to Find Supporting Materials
    • Develop research questions and a thesis statement
    • Conduct an audience analysis
    • From questions and thesis, create a list of potential search terms
    • Using the initial list, identify synonyms (related terms)
    • Find and incorporate sources
    • Search catalogs, databases, and the Open Web
    • Conduct personal interviews
    • Evaluate for credibility and relevance
    • Use analogies, facts, testimony, and examples

  • Create research questions

    • Your questions should stem directly from your thesis
    • Example topic: heart disease in women — risk factors, symptoms, treatments
    • Sample research questions:
    • To what extent does a family history of heart disease increase a woman’s risk?
    • How can social media be used to educate women on recognizing the symptoms of heart disease?
    • Are there specific treatments for heart disease that are more effective for women than for men?
    • Research questions may evolve over time; stay flexible and willing to redevelop
    • Keep the audience in mind: what topics will they appreciate? what do they already know? what do they want to know? which sources will they find credible?
    • Use audience-analysis strategies from Chapter 6 to tailor the speech

  • Generate a list of synonyms (Figure 7.2)

    • Focused search terms benefit credibility and relevance
    • Example table (Key Concepts vs. Synonyms):
    • Employment → synonyms: job, career, vocation, work
    • Education → synonyms: instruction, knowledge, learning, literacy, pedagogy, teaching
    • Ethics → synonyms: morality, morals, principles, standards

  • Search information sources

    • Resources for finding and gathering information to support topics
    • Types of supporting materials can be accessed via Internet (digital or physical formats)
    • The web expands the variety of resources; start with library catalogs, databases, and the Open Web

  • Library catalogs

    • Open Web offers many resources, but many libraries’ collections are accessed via catalogs
    • Libraries’ collections are unique to the institution’s mission/goals
    • Typical library sources: books, DVDs, music, journals, magazines, newspapers, primary sources, government documents
    • Library catalog acts as a search engine for that collection

  • Databases

    • Collections of information stored/organized structurally
    • Allows limits/filters in searches
    • Libraries license/subscriptions provide access to many databases
    • Databases index journals, magazines, newspapers (often in full text) and can include images, e-books, company info, audio/video, and specialized reports
    • These are part of the Hidden Web

  • Open Web

    • Free information on the Internet searched via Google, Bing, etc.
    • Includes blogs, social feeds, product reviews, current news, government information, and company/nonprofit sites
    • When instructors say to avoid Internet sources, they usually mean Open Web sources

  • Types of supporting materials (varied mix recommended)

    • A mix prevents audience fatigue from numbers alone and adds vitality to the speech
    • Example: statistics + personal examples to show scope and real-world relevance

  • Books

    • Broad coverage; contextualize topic; historical information; often slower to publish (print latency); e-books can be more current

  • Journals

    • Articles by scholars; primary research; peer-reviewed; in-depth, specific material; include bibliographies for further sources

  • Magazines

    • For general audiences; timely topics; accessible and non-specialist explanations

  • Newspapers/News sources

    • Recent information; local/campus newspapers for ideas; electronic versions via library subscriptions

  • Government documents

    • Public policy issues; hearings, research studies, reports; can be found in libraries or via Open Web with librarian help

  • Reference sources

    • Concise, fact-focused overviews; include statistics, background, definitions; can be electronic or print; often flagged on library sites

  • Statistics

    • Numerical summaries (means, medians, ratios, percentages)
    • Use statistics carefully: avoid overload; round numbers for audience clarity; consider data graphics to aid hearing and sight
    • Examples:
    • The United States spent nearly 5.20×10115.20\times 10^{11} dollars on national defense in 2003 (approximate)
    • An exact figure given: 5.1909×10115.1909\times 10^{11} dollars (≈ 519,090,000,000.00519{,}090{,}000{,}000.00)
    • A megabyte = 1,048,5761{,}048{,}576 bytes
    • Example translation: 40 million people die each year from hunger; equivalent to more than 300 jumbo jet crashes per day

  • Interviews

    • Interviewing best sources: people with experience or recognized experts
    • Success depends on selecting interviewees and crafting good questions (interview protocol)
    • Steps to interview:
    • Create a campus list of potential interviewees (e.g., via university website)
    • Seek instructor or librarian help to refine list
    • Schedule and prepare; know topic broadly and interviewee’s related experiences
    • Develop interview questions to elicit informative responses
    • Use a mix of yes/no and open-ended questions to cover breadth and depth
    • Example interview topics (AI speech):
    • How long have you been researching AI?
    • What is the current state of AI research at this university?
    • How many professors/students are involved in AI research here?
    • Why should students care about AI research?
    • What topics will AI researchers explore in the next five years?
    • How can students get involved in AI research projects here?

  • 7.2 Knowledge PPK (homework prompts)

    • Describe the three main components in developing a successful research strategy
    • Brainstorm a topic and complete the first two steps of the research strategy

  • Incorporating supporting materials

    • Several methods to incorporate information into speeches: analogies, facts, examples, testimony
    • Each method strengthens the claim and helps connect with the audience

Analogies

  • Purpose: clarify complex ideas by comparing to familiar or related concepts
  • Literal analogy example: If Arizona used the same tactics to control illegal immigration as Texas, argue the same results if states are similar in population, geography, resources
  • Figurative analogy: uses metaphors (e.g., Colosseum speech) to compare unrelated things for clarity
  • Benefits: help audience understand and relate to the topic

Facts

  • A fact is verifiable truth (e.g., "A megabyte is 1,048,5761{,}048{,}576 bytes").
  • Facts are most persuasive when the audience accepts them as true.
  • Always cite sources for factual claims to maintain credibility
  • Examples of factual statements:
    • The Fujita Scale is the official classification system for tornado damage
    • The Pac-12 conference has twelve schools; note correction: the Big 12 has ten; the Big Ten has fourteen

Examples

  • Vivid and relevant stories bolster claims (e.g., water crisis in Flint, Michigan)
  • Types of examples:
    • Brief example: a specific case to support a claim (e.g., slow government disaster response to Flint, starting in 2014)
    • Extended example: narratives or anecdotes that develop a topic in depth
    • Hypothetical examples: imagined scenarios to help the audience visualize
    • Example prompt: Imagine the water in your city is unsafe to drink; imagine living with lead poisoning for over two years
  • Extended/hypothetical examples must be accurate and non-exaggerated to remain credible

Testimony

  • Testimony involves quoting/paraphrasing an authoritative source
  • Example: Keith Richards discussed early music learning (quote/paraphrase)
  • Testimony can boost credibility when the source is credible; harmful if the source is unreliable or biased

7.3 Knowledge PPK (homework prompts)

  • List and define the five types of supporting material
  • Reflect on past sources used
  • Consider which sources to use next

Evaluating Supporting Materials

  • Central idea: evaluate credibility and relevance; beware of fake news (relevant to the 2016 election)

  • Ethical and legal responsibilities in documenting sources; include discussion of documenting supporting materials later in the chapter

  • Questions to consider when selecting materials:

    • Are the statistics representative? A representative sample reflects the population; question sampling methods
    • Are analogies comparing similar items? Similarity of the compared items matters for valid inferences
    • Are the facts verifiable? Can you locate the same fact in multiple sources?
    • Are the examples relevant, typical, and vivid? Prefer typical, relevant, and vivid examples to aid persuasion
    • Is the source identified and credible? If peers can’t verify, credibility suffers; refer to Figure 7.3 (Diagram of Potential Bias of Sources)
    • Are the author qualifications and authority clear? If not identifiable, seek more qualified sources
    • Is there bias? Consider potential gains/losses the author has by advancing a claim
    • Context matters: bias can affect credibility depending on the topic and audience

  • Bias and context example

    • If researching global warming, a source from a non-specialist (e.g., a music professor) may be less credible for climate models
    • Consider whether bias affects the credibility of the information and whether it is appropriate for the topic

  • 7.4 Avoiding Fake News (MI 7.4 prompts)

    • Is information timely? Some topics require up-to-date data; some are less time-sensitive
    • The Internet can spread fake news; evaluate sources to limit misinformation
    • Michael Lynch’s view: the Internet can be both a fact-checker and a bias confirmer
    • Tips to analyze news articles (NPR tips, Figure 7.4): domain/URL, About Us, quotes, source credibility, comments, reverse image search

  • Additional considerations

    • If using Open Web, verify sources with multiple credible references
    • Consider the audience needs and whether the materials address the research questions you posed
    • Ensure materials support and address audience expectations

Documenting Supporting Materials

  • Oral documentation is essential to avoid plagiarism and to establish credibility

  • Gather and record source information: author credentials, publication date, where published (journal, magazine, website), date accessed (especially web sources), and whether material is quoted or paraphrased

  • A complete oral citation should include:

    • Who authored the material
    • Why the author/ source is credible
    • Publication date (or access date for web sources)
    • Information about the source (title, publication venue)

  • Reasons to document sources orally

    • Prevent plagiarism and unethical use
    • Build credibility by showing reliable sources

  • Sample oral citations (illustrative formats)

    • Internet source with no author: - Example format: "According to The Tornado Project, a website hosted by a company that gathers tornado information for researchers, accessed earlier this month, the deadliest tornado in US history occurred in Murphysboro, Illinois in 1925, killing 234 people."
    • Book: - Example: "According to renowned weather historian Dr. David Ludlum, in the 1997 edition of the National Audubon Society’s Field Guide to North American Weather, tornado researchers use a scale known as the Fujita-Pearson Tornado Intensity Scale to rate tornadoes."
    • Journal article: - Example: "Astrogeophysicist Dr. Robert Davies-Jones notes in a 1995 edition of Scientific American that most tornadoes have damage paths ~150 feet wide, move at ~30 miles per hour, and last only a few minutes."
    • Magazine article: - Example: "Environmental activist and lawyer Robert F. Kennedy Jr. argues in a 2007 Vanity Fair that more than 100 representatives from polluting industries occupy key spots at federal agencies that regulate environmental quality."
    • Movie clip: - Example: A clip from Gladiator used as a source (note credibility considerations)

  • The speech outline should include a list of references consulted (sample reference page in Chapter 9)

  • 7.5 Knowledge PPK (homework prompts)

    • What information should be included in an oral citation?
    • Why is it important to include the oral citation in addition to the reference page?

Homework and Summary Notes

  • 7.1 Homework prompts recap: describe advanced information-seeking skills; discuss research strategy; discuss incorporating materials; evaluate sources; answer prompts
  • 7.2 & 7.3 Homework prompts: describe components of a successful research strategy; brainstorm topic and first two steps
  • 7.3a: List and define five types of supporting material
  • 7.3b: Consider sources you would like to use now
  • 7.4 Homework: assign reading or activities related to evaluating fake news and sources
  • 7.5a: What information should be included in an oral citation?
  • The overall aim: competent speakers access, evaluate, and incorporate high-quality information; time, ethical reflection, and critical thinking are essential; next chapter covers organizing ideas

Key Terms (glossary)

  • advanced information seeker
  • bias
  • brief example
  • credibility
  • databases
  • extended examples
  • fact
  • figurative analogy
  • Open Web
  • information literacy
  • interviewing
  • literal analogy
  • open web
  • open web
  • open web
  • processing and evaluating information
  • open web
  • proposing research questions
  • representative sample
  • research questions
  • statistics
  • synonyms
  • testimony
  • typicality
  • open web
  • open web

Summary

  • Effective speaking requires careful access to, evaluation of, and incorporation of high-quality information
  • A structured approach to research (topic selection, background research, questions, audience analysis, term generation, and source gathering) supports credibility and persuasiveness
  • A diverse mix of supporting materials (facts, statistics, analogies, examples, and testimony) strengthens understanding and engagement
  • Critical evaluation (representativeness, verifiability, relevance, bias, currency) is essential to avoid misinformation and maintain ethical standards
  • Proper documentation (oral citations and reference lists) reinforces credibility and protects against plagiarism
  • The chapter emphasizes ongoing development of information literacy as a foundational skill for academic and democratic participation