Unit 1 - Foundations of Humanities

These were all pretty self-explanatory, no notes. Universal themes, archetypes, monomyths, etc, they are all standard knowledge. I will just include this list of key concepts for you to use and reference throughout the rest of your reading.

E.O. Wilson’s Theory of Consilience - It reinforces interdisciplinary study and facilitates the exchange of information necessary to create a more holistic understanding of who we are.

Myth vs Monomyth - Myths can include a wide variety of narratives and archetypes. The monomyth focuses on the hero's journey.

What Are the Humanities?

Humanities - From the Latin word “humanitas” which refers to humans and their cultures. To study humanities is to learn what it is to be human from a cultural sense.

By studying the Humanities, we can understand the past as a pattern of human interactions within a rich context of beliefs, ideals, and experiences. This allows us to build better relationships, and to better understand and communicate with one another.

Themes in Humanities

Themes - Unifying ideas that are repeated or developed throughout literary or artistic works.

There are three themes that have been reiterated throughout history:

1. Individualism

2. Revolution

3. Classicism

Recurring Universal Themes

Love - Ancient Greeks developed a distinction between themes of love:

1. Eros - Erotic Love

2. Agape - Platonic, selfless love

Love also opened Humanities to exploring other distinct forms of love: love of God, of family, romantic love, and friendship.

Heroes - The hero is an archetype found in virtually every culture and society. It satisfied a psychological need to see the individual as capable of stupendous feats

Central Concepts in Humanities

Humanism - The study of creative and intellectual contributions made by all cultures as an ethical system that emphasizes human reason, values, and the scientific method. Confucianism and Buddhism mirror Humanist principles.

Myths - Traditional stories of a people or culture that serve to explain some natural phenomenon, the origin of humanity, or customs or religious rites. They often offer practical and spiritual wisdom in addition to being entertaining

Beauty - Defined as those qualities that give pleasure to the senses. An aesthetic experience is an experience of beauty that inspires a feeling of pleasure that is its own justification. For example, the beauty of the moon may cause us to enjoy the experience of looking at the moon just for the sake of looking at it.

Archetypes - Age-old models by which we comprehend human experience. The concepts of heroes, scapegoats, and heaven are examples of concepts that have been passed down through generations and have become part of our cultural subconscious.

Aesthetic Experience - An experience of beauty that inspires a feeling of pleasure, which is its own justification, and this experience is valued independently of others.

The Humanities and the Disciplines

• Music - An artistic form of auditory expression that incorporates instruments or human voices in a structured and continuous manner.

• Cinema - An artistic medium that uses the motion picture as a vehicle for storytelling and other creative expressions.

• The visual arts - Entail creation of primarily visual works, which can be two or three-dimensional. These include painting, illustration, photography, printmaking, and sculpture.

• Literature - An art form of the written word. It refers to an individual literary work or collectively to the creative writing of a people, nation, or culture. Major forms of literature include poetry, novels, plays, and short stories.

• Theater - A storytelling art. It often combines speech, music, gesture, dance, stagecraft, and spectacle to perform a drama or musical before a live audience.

• Dance - An art form involving a sequence of rhythmic movements or steps usually performed to music. Historically, dance has often served ritualistic as well as entertainment purposes.

• Architecture - The science and art of designing buildings and other structures and is concerned with the aesthetic effect of structures in their surrounding environment.

• Philosophy - The systematic investigation of fundamental questions concerning such matters as existence, reality, consciousness, knowledge, truth, and justice. The main branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, logic, and the philosophy of the mind.

Functions of Art

There are five broad functions of art:

1. Art provides aesthetic pleasure.

2. Art offers political and social commentary.

3. Art can assist in physical and emotional healing.

4. Art can create historical artifacts from a specific time or place.

5. Art can be used to enable commerce in advertising products and services.

Unit 2 - The Classical Period

Classicism - The aesthetic attitudes and principles reflected in the art and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome

Major Themes of the Classical Period

Classicism is particularly concerned with harmony and balance.

Balance and Harmony -

• Philosophy -

  • The ideals of justice and virtue depended on balance and harmony

  • The harmony among different classes of people within Plato’s republic was a metaphor that harmony should exist in the human soul

  • For Aristotle, the individual can create a virtuous character by achieving balance between too much of a trait and too little of a trait. This is called Golden Mean.

• Art and Architecture -

  • Greeks copied the symmetry of ancient Egyptian sculptures by using their proportions.

    • But the Greeks made them nakey. That was their own touch

  • Greeks invented “contrapposto” which is the stance of a man putting weight on one foot with the dip of a shoulder balancing the rise of a hip to create a dynamic pose.

  • The ancient Greek temple is still used today, such as in the Lincoln Memorial. Both sides are symmetrical, and horizontal symmetry is achieved by balancing the steps to the monument with the graduated levels of entablature above the columns.

Truth/Reason -

• In Western tradition, ancient Greeks are credited with founding both science and philosophy, two disciplines that understand “truth” as information that humans can acquire for themselves through reason, without the help of gods.

Democracy/Republic -

• The ancient world used two forms of government that are used in the world today: Democracy, and a republic.

• The Greeks acted under a democracy while the Romans acted under a republic (a divided government)

Polytheism -

• The Greeks and Romans both worshipped multiple gods.

• The most important ones to the Humanities are the Muses, daughters of Zeus, goddesses devoted to memory and inspiration.

Humanism -

• In classical antiquity, Greeks and Romans put the human at the center of almost every endeavor.

Classical Contexts: Ancient Greece and Rome

Ancient Greece and Rome showcased remarkable creativity and leadership during the Classical Period, developing innovative ideas in art, architecture, and government. Recognizing the contributions of these civilizations aids in understanding their unique impact on Western culture and the Humanities.

Democracy and The Republic: Greek and Roman Civic Structure

Archaic Age (800-479 BCE) in Greece:

• Important political structures and the beginning of democracy emerged at this time

• The Greek city-state (polis) became the principal structure of Greek society

  • These city-states shared a language and cultural norms but governed themselves independently.

The Roman Republic:

Rome began as a small city-state around 753 BCE and evolved into a vast empire until 1453 CE, ending with the fall of Constantinople (current day Istanbul). The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE. Initially part of the Etruscan civilization, Rome inherited the Latin alphabet and skills in urban planning/civil engineering. Its early government featured kings elected by a senate of wealthy landowners, with the last king overthrown in 509 BCE, leading to the establishment of the Roman Republic. The Republic and Empire significantly influenced Western civilization in language, religion, law, government, and preserved Greek art and philosophy for later generations, especially during the Renaissance and Enlightenment.

Balance and Reason: Greek and Roman Innovations

During the Archaic Age in Ionia (modern-day Turkey), Pre-Socratic philosophers emphasized observation and reason, laying the groundwork for Western philosophy and the modern scientific method. They distinguished nature from superstition, developing methods of hypothesis formulation based on empirical observation. This significant shift influenced arts, science, and philosophy. Furthermore, the Greeks focused on ideal proportion and balance, evident in works like the kouros (life-sized statue of nude males featuring a stance where the left foot is placed in front of the right). Aristotle’s Golden Mean highlighted achieving personal balance. Romans advanced civil engineering, exemplified by aqueducts and architectural designs using arches and domes, reflecting balance and symmetry. The era's themes profoundly influenced various domains, including governance, society, and artistic expression.

Classical Religion

Classical Period religions were diverse, with traditional polytheism being predominant in Greek and Roman civilizations. Both cultures shared numerous gods and myths, with the Muses playing a vital role in inspiring artists. Amidst this polytheism, monotheistic religions such as Judaism and Christianity began to rise in influence, competing with traditional beliefs in the later years of the Classical Era.

Greek Polytheism

Ancient Greek culture and religion began with the Minoan civilization on Crete (1900-1400 BCE), associated with the legendary King Minos and noted as the birthplace of Zeus as well as the Minotaur.

The Mycenaean civilization (1600-1100 BCE) later conquered Crete and contributed to a polytheistic belief system that formed the classical pantheon of gods, including twelve key deities like Zeus, Hera, and Poseidon, along with many minor gods.

The Greeks also acknowledged titans, heroes, and supernatural beings like nymphs and cyclopes. Greek religion emphasized personal relationships with gods that were anthropomorphic, displaying human traits and actively influencing human affairs, which was different from other religions of the time. This also served to highlight the importance of sacrifices to specific deities for favor. Importantly, Prometheus, a titan, was credited with creating humanity rather than the gods themselves.

Roman Polytheism

For the Romans, religion was intertwined with government, with piety attributed to their success. Augustus often portrayed himself as both emperor and priest, highlighting his religious authority. They adopted and adapted religious idols from the peoples they conquered, most notably the Greek gods (pantheon), such as Jupiter (Zeus) and Minerva (Athena), integrating them with local traditions. Unlike the Greeks, who focused on myths, Romans emphasized the practical roles of their deities, exemplified by Minerva, who was worshipped as the goddess of arts, trade, and defense, with annual festivals and a temple for artists in Rome.

Greek vs Roman Polytheism

Greek Polytheism

• Based in the belief that gods were humanoid, which separated it from other religions of the time.

• Consists of twelve primary gods, titans, heroes and other supernatural races such as nymphs. This is known as the pantheon.

• According to the Greeks, Prometheus created human beings, not the gods.

Roman Polytheism

• Adopted the pantheon from the Greeks and blended it with native traditions.

• Deeply intertwined religion and government by not only deifying their emperor but also attributing the success of any city-state to that region's piety.

Classical Philosophy

Around 585 BCE in Miletus, the first Greek philosophers, referred to as "primitive scientists," advanced philosophy by focusing on reason and truth instead of mythology. Their inquiries into the physical world marked a significant shift away from reliance on cultural myths.

The pre-Socratic philosophers made inquiries into the physical nature of the world, without relying on cultural mythologies to explain it. As such, their approach was a significant break from humankind's past.

Notable Philosophers

Socrates: An influential Athenian philosopher, primarily known through writings of his students, especially Plato. He developed the Socratic Method, a technique involving questions and discussion, leading to his execution due to his controversial ideas.

Plato: A student of Socrates who founded an Academy at 40. His writings, particularly the Dialogues, reflect both Socratic philosophy and his own ideas, emphasizing Knowledge as timeless truth, Moral Philosophy stressing the universality of goodness, and Political Philosophy which asserts philosophers should be rulers. His Allegory of the Cave (The Republic) illustrates how most people fail to perceive the true world.

Aristotle: A student of Plato who focused on observational methods rather than Plato's deductive reasoning. He believed that the pursuit of goodness and happiness is interconnected, highlighting that morality is essential to navigate human conflict and achieve balance (the Golden Mean), such as finding the mean between arrogance and insecurity.

The Socratic Method

The Socratic Method is a philosophical approach focused on persistent questioning and curiosity to explore concepts like courage, wisdom, and justice. A leader poses questions that reveal weaknesses in hypotheses, prompting further inquiry until a truth is uncovered. This method helps in eliminating weak ideas and discovering strong hypotheses, emphasizing the importance of discussing and refining these ideas through rhetoric.

Commentary: Plato’s The Republic

• Plato (427–347 BCE), a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, took philosophy to a whole new level by combining strands of existing philosophy into a comprehensive body of knowledge. His philosophy can be divided into three equally important components: theories of knowledge, moral philosophy, and political philosophy.

• Plato's theory of knowledge is best embodied by his Allegory of the Cave. Plato uses the allegory to advance his belief that believing, questioning, and observing lead to abstract thought and analysis. The Forms, the essences of objects or things, were also integral to his theories of knowledge. Plato believed that there are universal truths or essences that everyone agrees on.

• Plato's moral philosophy was based on the emphasis of the Four Virtues: Temperance, Courage, Reason, and Justice. Plato believed that each of these virtues complemented and supported another in maintaining the necessary degree of balance and morality.

• Plato held that the ideal state would be divided into three social classes—merchants, guardians, and rulers—and ruled morally by a philosopher-king. Each social class would be limited in a way that would discourage them from prioritizing other desires and needs over their function.

Classical Poetry

Classical poets explored themes of heroism, reason, love, and fate, celebrating cultural achievements and values. They emphasized reason, democracy, balance, and the human-divine relationship, often portraying complex interactions between heroes and gods. Poetry shifted from epic works like Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey, which focused on grand themes and exalted language, to more intimate Greek lyric poetry that explored everyday experiences. This evolution of poetry laid the groundwork for later Western poetic traditions, influencing Renaissance and Romantic poetry.

"The Odyssey" an epic poem

• An epic poem based on Odysseus' ten-year struggle to return home

• Written by Homer

• The major themes consist of love, loyalty, heroism, and polytheism.

"A Lament for Adonis" a lyrical poem

• Addresses placing human emotion at the center of the poem rather than a god or goddess

• Written by Sappho

• Uses intimate language to represent deeply personal emotions

Classical Theater

Modern theater originated in ancient Greece, especially classical Athens, around 1200 BCE as religious rituals in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. Over time, theater evolved into an entertainment form with established rules and structures. Aristotle identified six essential elements of drama: plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and music.

Theater performances were given in an open-air amphitheater carved into the side of a hill, which consisted of an orchestra (stage) where the play's action took place, the skene or scenic wall, and parados or passageways. Actors were exclusively male and wore different masks during the performance to depict their identities, be it male or female characters. Though playwrights have since experimented with themes and structures, theater throughout history has closely mirrored the form developed by the ancient Greeks. At the height of ancient Grecian civilization, tragedy was the predominant genre performed. While philosophers explored such themes as humanism, truth, and the essence of life, so did playwrights delve into these topics onstage. The main character's central human trait or character flaw, such as hubris, was the driving force behind the plot. Though the main character was often locked into a destiny, he or she was also often the cause of the events that led to the fulfillment of the destiny, typically with a dramatic twist of irony. Every action in these works had a consequence that put the characters into dramatic tension, which speaks to another period theme: balance. Characters explored truth by first rejecting their flawed histories, natures, and fates, then attempting to come to terms with them.

As Greek civilization declined, comedy gained popularity. During the Classical Period, democracy and republics emerged, emphasizing that every (male) citizen had a voice. Comedies served as a satirical outlet, mocking various current affairs, including politics, institutions, religion, and prominent citizens.

Notable Works

Playwrights like Sophocles (Oedipus Rex) and Aristophanes (Lysistrata) created irony using literary devices:

• Foreshadowing: Providing clues about future events.

• Double Entendre: A word or phrase with dual meanings.

• Reversal (of Fortune): A dramatic shift in a character's situation.

• Discovery: An epiphanal moment when a character realizes the truth.

• Chorus: A group of 12-15 men acting as messengers, providing commentary and advice, a key feature in classical theater.

Oedipus Rex

• The main character brings about their own downfall by persistently pursuing their curiosity.

• The main character is adopted by a Corinthian King and Queen.

Lysistrata

• Written by Aristophanes

• Depicts the stereotypes of both men and women through each other's eyes.

Detailed Differences between Oedipus Rex and Lysistrata

Classical Art and Architecture

The classical tradition in art began with the Greeks and Romans, emphasizing balance, harmony, and ideal proportions.

Ancient Greek art is renowned for its elevation of the human form (reflected in classical humanism), as seen in architecture, sculpture, coin design, and pottery. Greek art and architecture served to promote religion, present beauty, and glorify society, particularly in Athens, reflecting their desire to honor their gods as embodiments of the highest beauty.

Roman art, on the other hand, focuses on imperial themes of power, military victory, and heroism, decorating public spaces. It produced grand structures like the Colosseum, made possible through advancements in concrete, and supported religious practice through the depiction of gods and goddesses.

Music in the Classical Period

Music during the Classical Era emphasized balance, influenced by Pythagorean principles of proportion. The Pythagoreans discovered that doubling the tension of a lyre string results in an octave (1:2 ratio). They also identified the fifth interval (3:2 ratio), which remains pleasing to listeners today, exemplified in the opening notes of the Star Wars theme.

The music of the Classical Period has been reconstructed through archaeological findings of instruments like woodwinds (flute, aulos), horns, organs, strings (lyre, kithara), and percussion. Artistic depictions and fragments of papyrus with musical scores aid in understanding melodies, rhythm, and meter, which can also be derived from epic poems.

Ancient Greek Music

Music in Greek Celebrations

• Music was an integral part of Greek celebrations, including athletic competitions.

• Due to the lack of recordings and few surviving musical texts, the Delphic Hymns serve as some of the only examples of this Greek tradition.

• The Delphic Hymns were written for the Athenian Pythaides, or the Pythian Games, honoring the patron god of the games, Apollo.

• Significant fragments of the First Delphic Hymn to Apollo were discovered in 1893 by a French archaeologist, inscribed in marble on an outside wall of the Treasury of the Athenians at Delphi.

• The composer of this hymn is known to be an Athenian around 138 BCE, but the specific name is not readable from the inscription.

Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Classical Period

• Inspiration Sources: Artists, philosophers, writers, and musicians drew inspiration from ancient civilizations of southern Europe, western Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.

• Kouros Sculptures: Greeks followed proportions of ancient Egyptian free-standing sculptures in creating kouros, which are male nude statues.

• Jewish Community Exchange: Following Alexander the Great's conquering of the Persian Empire in 332 BCE, the Greeks and Jewish communities exchanged ideas and customs.

• Hellenic Rule: Alexander granted the Jewish community significant freedom, allowing the establishment of many educational institutions.

• Silk Road: This trade route facilitated the exchange of goods with Asia and allowed the spread of Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Daoism to Europe.

  • Buddhism originated from the regions of what is now northeast India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan

• Empirical Awareness: Although there was little direct contact, the Roman Empire (100 BCE–400 CE) and the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) were conscious of each other as vast empires.

• Language: The ancient Greeks borrowed the alphabet of the Phoenicians, a Middle Eastern civilization, in order to write down their own language.

Contemporary Influences of the Classical Period

1. Democracy

   • The United States' political system is based on principles from ancient Greece, particularly from the city-state of Athens.

   • Cleisthenes, an Athenian nobleman, introduced "demokratia" (rule by the people) in 507 BCE.

   • The concept of the "republic" from classical Rome denotes public governance with transparency.

   • Reflected in a representative democracy, such as the right to vote

2. Architecture

   • Classical influences shaped American architecture, emphasizing formality, tradition, and authority.

   • Notable examples include: U.S. Capitol. Supreme Court buildings. Inspirations drawn from the Greek Parthenon and Roman Pantheon

3. The Arts

   • Classical influences persist in contemporary media, illustrated by the film "O Brother, Where Art Thou?"

   • The film is a retelling of The Odyssey, showcasing various motifs and themes, such as:

     • The journey of Ulysses Everett McGill paralleling Odysseus' struggle.

     • Characters and challenges reflecting ancient narratives, e.g., Sirens and Cyclops.

     • The blind railroad conductor as an oracle reminiscent of figures from The Odyssey.

Summary of Key Concepts for The Classical Period and Vocabulary

Introduction to the Classical Period

Western Civilization traces its origins to classical Greece and Rome, a period that lasted approximately from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Both civilizations broke new ground in various fields, such as art, literature, science, medicine, government, law, architecture, engineering, history and philosophy.

Between 480 BCE and 323 BCE, classical Greece made numerous advancements that would form the basis of Western Civilization. Some examples are the creation of the first democracy, the beginnings of Western philosophy, physical science, and drama and theater.

The ancient Romans, building upon the Greek foundation, added their cultural contributions such as the works of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Cicero. The Romans also developed new forms of architecture and infrastructure, creating miles of roads, aqueducts, and arches. They also pioneered new methods of governance and legal systems that would later be a model. Finally, due to their presence throughout Europe, the existence of today's Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish) can all trace their roots back to Roman Latin.

Classical Greece and Rome influenced virtually every following era of Western Civilization, including the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and contemporary culture.

Major Themes of the Classical Period

The major themes that emerged from the Classical Period included balance, truth/reason, democracy/republic, polytheism, and humanism.

• Classical artists and philosophers were concerned with harmony and balance* in their works.

• The great thinkers of the time—including Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—engaged in pursuit of truth* through logic and reason*.

• During the Classical Period, new forms of government known as democracy* and republic* were created that put the power of decision making into the hands of the people.

• The majority of ancient Greeks and Romans were polytheistic*, believing in multiple gods who represented different facets of life.

• At the core of almost every endeavor was humanism*—simply a focus on humans.

Classical Context of Ancient Greece and Rome

Ancient Greece and Rome were incredibly revolutionary in their new forms of government, art, architecture, and design.

• In ancient Greece, the first democracy* was founded in the city-state of Athens. This democracy consisted of the Assembly of all citizens, the Council of tribal representatives, and popular courts.

• Ancient Greece and Rome are responsible for many innovations that changed history, such as the ideas that underlie the modern scientific method, a focus on balance and the body in art, significant advancements in geometry, and advancements in civil engineering.

Classical Religion

• In the Classical Period, there were many different religions throughout the world. The most prevalent were polytheistic ideas, seen especially in Greek and Roman civilizations.

• In Greece and Rome, polytheism*, a belief in multiple gods, was the most common. In Greece, the primary gods included Zeus, Hera, and Poseidon. In Rome, religion and government were more deeply intertwined, wherein emperors became part of the pantheon of the deities.

Classical Philosophy

• Early Greek philosophers*, around 585 BCE, started to make inquiries about physical nature that did not rely on their culture's mythologies* for support. These philosophies dealt with ideas of existence, mathematics, change, and atoms.

• Socrates was the first well-known philosopher to widely use the Socratic Method*, where questions and ideas were shared to solve problems in an open discussion. One of his students was Plato, whose student Aristotle was also an important philosopher. Together, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle greatly pushed philosophy and thinking forward.

Classical Poetry

• Classical poets addressed themes of heroism, reason, love, and fate.

• Two of the most celebrated works of classical Greek epic poetry are Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey, which use exalted language and celebrate the cultural values of the heroic age.

• Around the 6th century BCE, Greek epic* poetry gave way to Greek lyric poetry*, which explored everyday objects using more intimate language.

• Classical Roman poetry follows much of the form and content of Greek poetry while exalting the Roman Empire.

• The Greek poet Sappho explored human emotions, such as love and desire, in her poem "A Lament for Adonis."

Classical Theater

• The development of classical theater structure laid the foundations for theater as we know it today.

• Classical theater addressed period themes such as humanism*, truth*, balance*, and the essence of life.

• Classical theater included such literary devices as foreshadowing*, tragic irony*, reversal of fortune*, double entendre*, discovery*, and use of a chorus*.

• Three common play genres were the tragedy*, the comedy*, and the tragicomedy* Satyr* was a form of comedy.

• Sophocles and Aristophanes were two notable playwrights. Sophocles wrote the Theban Plays, and Aristophanes commonly explored gender in society.

• Oedipus Rex discusses a person's need to know the truth, using foreshadowing and irony.

• Lysistrata discusses gender relations and the woman's role in society using comedy and double entendre.

Classical Art and Architecture

• Ancient Greek art* and architecture served to promote religion, present beauty, and glorify Athenian society. Ancient Roman art* and architecture focused on themes of power, military victory, and heroism.

• In sculpture, the Greeks invented contrapposto, a life-like stance in which the figure's weight rests on one leg. The resulting dip of a shoulder balances the rise of a hip to create a dynamic pose.

• In architecture, the Greeks focused on balance and symmetry. Greek temples featured columns, topped with a capital*, which supported the entablature*, a decorative area that featured painted or carved friezes*. The triangular shaped roof ends contained more sculptures called pediments*. Perhaps the most notable Ancient Greek structure is the Parthenon, which features Doric order columns. The Parthenon once housed a large statue of Athena covered in gold.

• Roman architects and engineers further developed the use of columns and arches and also pioneered the use of concrete. The Pantheon* in Rome showcases the use of concrete faced with brick.

Music in the Classical Period

• Music in the Classical Period typically consisted of simple four note successions played as a perfect fourth, drawing similarities to the Middle Eastern tradition of music.

• The ancient Greeks and Romans played a variety of instruments, including the lyre*, a stringed instrument similar to a harp.

• The Greeks used music in everyday life and were interested in the relationship between music and mathematics.

Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Classical Period

• Classical works modeled a relationship of cultural exchange and diversity.

• Greece and Rome's proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, known as "the incubator of western civilization," facilitated cultural exchange among the ancient civilizations in southern Europe, western Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.

• The Greeks borrowed the proportions of the three-dimensional sculptures of the ancient Egyptians in developing the life-like male, human figure known as the kouros.

• The Greeks borrowed the alphabet of the Phoenicians and imitated Egyptian mythological creatures and artistic motifs in their artwork.

• The Silk Road* provided access to Asia and brought the valuable Chinese good of silk to the Romans. In return, the Romans sent their glass to the east.

• The Silk Road also opened the door for Eastern religions—such as Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Daoism—to spread to Europe. Christianity also spread quickly along the same trade route.

Classical Influences on Contemporary Life

• The Classical Period's influences can be seen in the United States today in the political system, in architecture, and in the arts.

• The American political system is a representative democracy* in which people have the right to vote. This system has influences from the Classical Period, including the ancient Greek idea of democracy and the classical Roman concept of the republic*.

• In the United States, many monuments and national buildings echo architectural styles that were developed in the Classical Period. Greek and Roman design elements, such as seen in the Greek Parthenon and Roman Pantheon, are present in the U.S. Capitol and Supreme Court buildings.

• Contemporary theater and film works are often inspired by classical Greek comedies and tragedies. For example, the American film O Brother, Where Art Thou? is a modern retelling of The Odyssey.

Vocabulary

Unit 3 - The Renaissance

• The Renaissance began in Italy and later spread throughout Europe

• Renaissance painters often employed scientific principles when creating works of art, to solve problems such as perspective and to devise new techniques to represent light and shade

Major Themes of the Renaissance Period

• Renaissance: A period termed 'rebirth' that revived several Classical Era values, notably humanism and rationalism.

• Humanism: Emphasized exploration of the human form and qualities in art and science, akin to ancient Greeks and Romans.

• Scientific Advances: Driven by humanism, fostering reason and rationalism while diminishing medieval religious devotion, leading to discoveries in various fields.

• Christian Humanism: A belief that humans, made in God's image, possess dignity and worth, intertwining classical and secular knowledge.

• Growth of Education: Development of more universities, promoting a range of subjects including law, medicine, and philosophy; some secular, focusing on rational thought.

• Individualism: Emerged as education expanded, with people seeking identity through knowledge rather than faith, creating unique public personas.

• Self-fashioning: Social etiquette and fashion became mediums for individual self-expression, reflecting personal identity.

• Religious Reformation: Coexisted with Renaissance themes; some criticized Roman authority leading to the Protestant Reformation initiated by Martin Luther's protests against corruption, forming various sects away

Rebirth of Classicism

• Remember that the period that preceded the Renaissance was the Middle Ages, which saw the decline of influences from Greece and Rome.

• Classicism embraced the following concepts:

  • Humanism (the importance and perfectibility of human beings)

  • Reason, rationalism, and scientific expansion

  • Balance (the coming together of beauty, goodness, and truth)

Humanism in Renaissance

• The impetus for the classical revival was the belief that full humanity could be realized through classical education and the study of Western antiquity.

• This rebirth re-asserted the superiority of ancient Greco-Roman creative and intellectual contributions as the highest human cultural achievements.

• Christian humanists blended Christianity and classical thinking, emphasizing the utmost importance of individual humans created in God's image.

• Development of intellectual reason and devotion to God was seen as necessary for humans.

• Thinkers like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola highlighted human dignity and free will in texts on Christian humanism.

• Renaissance philosophers sought universal divine wisdom in the teachings of classical philosophers like Aristotle, which revived humanism despite classical antiquity being deemed 'pagan' by some thinkers.

• Artists, philosophers, and writers viewed ancient works as authoritative, promoting human accomplishment.

• The interest in classical ideas during the Renaissance included the study of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy.

• Humanism became institutionalized in society, emphasizing the qualities that make humans human and promoting success in various endeavors.

• The rebirth of humanism in Italy was linked to its status as the center of the Catholic Church and the Roman Empire.

• Renaissance humanists focused on the creation of good citizens and good Christians, drawing models from democratic Athens and the Roman Republic, leading to demands for political equality in Europe.

• The view of the world shifted, no longer seen merely as preparation for the next life

Rationalism and Scientific Expansion

• Humanism emphasizes the power of the human brain to study, learn, and understand the world.

• There was a strong interest in rationalism and scientific inquiry during the Renaissance period.

• Many noteworthy individuals from the Renaissance embodied these ideals.

• For these individuals, religious dogma and classical philosophy were seen as lacking in depth for understanding the world.

• They applied reason and scientific thinking to various endeavors.

• This approach led to technological advancements in fields such as medicine, transportation, and warfare.

Expansion of the University System

• The Renaissance emphasized individualism, encouraging personal development in scholarly, artistic, and physical interests.

• Education during the Renaissance produced well-rounded individuals, contrasting with the narrow specialization of the Middle Ages.

• This period marked a significant shift in epistemology across Europe, focusing on reason and rational thought.

• The expansion of the university system became crucial in this period.

• Between 1400 and 1601, the number of European universities increased from 29 to 63.

• Universities were centers for innovative research

Individualism and Self-Fashioning

Honey, let me spill the tea on the Renaissance, darling! This fabulous era was all about discovering and celebrating the unique sparkle within every single one of us! Individualism became the name of the game, and oh, was it a wonder to behold! That divine diva, Leon Battista Alberti, an architect with a flair for the dramatic, said it best: "Boys can do anything if they set their fabulous minds to it!" Can I get an amen?

And you better believe these Renaissance artists were ready to strut their stuff! Forget hiding in the shadows glorifying some heavenly ghost; these queens boldly signed their masterpieces, hunting for that glorious recognition and divine validation! Unlike those medieval peeps who kept it low-key and all about the Big Guy upstairs, our Renaissance artists were out there sparkling and snatching glory!

As the stuffy ideals of the Middle Ages began to shimmy off stage, it was high time for everyone to embrace their inner fabulousness. Nobles strutted their stuff with public personas crafted from their own dazzling interests — the way they dressed, acted, and danced through life became a pride parade of self-expression!

And let's give a shoutout to our queen of scholarship, Stephen Greenblatt, who named this fab movement of personal flair "self-fashioning!" It’s all about shaping that fabulous identity for the glittering spotlight of society! The Book of the Courtier by Baldasarre Castiglione served fierce etiquette realness, laying down the rules on how to be as fabulous as possible in public and beyond!

Reformation

The Renaissance Drama: Martin Luther's Fabulous Exit!

1. The Moment of Sparkle: On October 31, 1517, our fierce queen, Martin Luther, stepped onto the scene! This fab German monk, priest, and theologian was ready to shake things up and steal the show!

2. The Big Objection: Luther was not about to sit back and watch the Catholic Church sell indulgences—oh no, honey! He said, "Excuse me, are we really gonna let people pay to wipe away their sins?" We ain’t buying forgiveness; it should be free, darling!

3. The Tea on Indulgences: Selling forgiveness was just a way for the Church to line its pockets to finish building St. Peter's Basilica. It’s like paying for a VIP ticket when you could strut the runway on your own!

4. The Ninety-Five Theses: In a letter dripping with sass, Luther penned his famous "Ninety-Five Theses" to his bishop, proclaiming all the shady practices of the Church, the selling of indulgences

6. ! This document wasn’t just for tea—we still drink from that cup today!

7. Translating the Drama: Martin had his work translated from snooty Latin into German! That way, all the peeps could read it and join the fabulous revolution. It was the gossip that spread like wildfire across Europe!

8. A Whole Movement: This drama led to the Reformation, where Luther was excommunicated but became an icon for Protestantism—yes, darling! It wasn’t just about him—he inspired others like John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli to strut their stuff across Germany, Scandinavia, and beyond!

9. The Church Goes Wild: By the 16th century, reformed churches were popping up everywhere, honey! Even the Church of England had to get in on the action when they declared independence in 1534, featuring some Reformation flair!

Contexts: The Renaissance

The Importance of the Renaissance

1. Honey, the Renaissance was all about the fabulous revival of classical art, literature, philosophy, architecture, and learning, darling! 💖

2. It brought a whole new hype to studying those ancient Greco-Roman masterpieces, like a true cultural cocktail party! 🍸

3. This period birthed some of the finest artistic and intellectual achievements in Western Humanities, sugar! 🌟

4. Now, let's not forget, the Renaissance wasn't just strutting its stuff alone; it was shaking hands with the Age of Discovery and all that scientific sass! 🌍

5. Science became the new it girl, darling! It was recognized as a legit source of knowledge, leading to some major curiosity on how our lovely eyes perceive light and space! 👀✨

6. All that eye candy had artists flipping their wigs as they explored perspective and tried out fabulous new techniques like chiaroscuro. Yes, queen! 🎨💅

7. Chiaroscuro was used to create new lighting techniques in art

The Age of Exploration

The Age of Exploration: Honey, Let’s Break It Down!

1. When It Happened: Sweethearts, we’re strutting from the early 15th century to the fab 17th century—this was when European peeps decided to hit the high seas!

2. What It’s Called: This whole shebang is known as the "Age of Exploration" or, if you’re feeling fancy, the "Age of Discovery." It’s like the most glamorous debutante ball where the world opened up to fabulous new adventures!

3. Why It Matters: Oh darling, this period wasn’t just about finding new lands. Honey, it changed the world! European explorers were like, "Let’s sail away and see what’s out there!" And boy, did they find treasures!

4. The Science Behind the Sizzle: Renaissance science was serving some serious looks—embellishing ship designs, creating navigational charts, and improving tools for voyaging! Think of it as the ultimate makeover for seafaring; they were ready to slay the waves!

5. The Quest for Goods: Y’all, the spice and silk trade was the drama of the day! The rise of the Ottoman Empire made it tough to get these delish imports over land, so what did they do? They took to the ocean like queens in a runway show, serving exploration realness!

6. The Death of the Silk Road: By the time the Ottomans took a backseat, this old trade route was out—sea trade was now the main diva, baby! Fast and fabulous, it totally outshined the Silk Road.

7. Wealth on the Horizon: With all that adventuring came serious coins, hunnies! The exploration opened doors to new riches and wisdom that reshaped Europe. Talk about a glow-up!

8. Economics Fit for a Queen: As these nations amassed wealth, they had to level up their financial game! Enter the Dutch East India Company in 1602—our first multinational corporation, darling! It was like the first stock exchange strutting into town, managing those coins like

Renaissance Religion

The Decline of the Catholic Church's Influence: A Fabulous Breakdown

1. The Once-Mighty Force: Honey, the Catholic Church was the main stage diva during the Middle Ages, ruling the scene like the queen she is! But as we sashayed into the Renaissance, oh darling, the spotlight started to dim and her influence began to wane!

2. Slow to Adapt: Let's spill the tea, the Church was rooted in medieval feudalism and just couldn’t keep pace with the fabulous changes happening! Social, political, and economic shifts were strutting down the runway, but the Church? She was still in her medieval frock, sweetie!

3. Corruption Caught Up: The corruption in high places, baby, that was a scandal of epic proportions! As some of the Church leaders were serving lies instead of truth, it tarnished her glamorous reputation.

4. Rise of Religious Fervor: The Renaissance brought a pop of rebellious energy, sweetie! People were feeling themselves, and a wave of enthusiastic religious movements began to challenge the papal authority. These heretical vibes were about lifting the foundations of the Church and saying "No more!"

5. Reform Instead of Rejection: Now, let’s keep it real. Not everyone just wanted to toss the Church out! Many fabulous reformers wanted to change things for the better instead. They were like, “Girl, let’s switch it up!” They proposed that power go from the Pope to a council of bishops instead.

6. Our Queen Erasmus: Enter Desiderius Erasmus, darling! This fierce philosopher knew what was up! He was the loyalist sticking by the Church but came in pockets full of sass, advocating for a liberal education that sparked intellect and morality like fireworks on the Fourth of July!

7. In Praise of Folly: His pièce de résistance? Oh honey, it had to be "In Praise of Folly"! A smart and cheeky essay roasting the corruption and shady behavior hidden in the Church’s sanctum. If that doesn’t scream fabulous, I don’t know what does!

8. A Shift from Within: So, while Erasmus was all about reforming from the inside, darlin’, other folks were ready to break free from the Church’s heavy chains of corruption—splitting away and marching to their own beat! You've got to strut your truth, baby!

So, there you have it, sugar! The Catholic Church's decline was a complex catwalk of scandals, reformists,

The Protestant Reformation

The Fabulous Protestant Reformation: A Drag-tastic Breakdown

Let me spill the tea about the Protestant Reformation, darlings! This was one of the most iconic movements of the Renaissance, and it's time we break it down like the fabulous queens we are! Here’s the runway show of religious transformation, honey:

1. The Start of the Show: 1517, Honey! The year we kick off the Reformation fever! The dazzling German theologian, Martin Luther, stepped into the spotlight, serving up his Ninety-Five Theses like it was the hottest gossip in town!

2. The Realness of Dissatisfaction! Luther and his fabulous squad were majorly annoyed with the Roman Catholic Church! They were like, "Gurl, enough with the shady practices and false doctrines!" It was time to snatch that power back!

3. Corruption? No Thanks! Our queen, Luther, called out all that systemic corruption in the Church hierarchy like it was a red carpet every queen deserves to strut! He said no to papal infallibility! No diva needed to be the middleman between God and the fabulous faithful!

4. Righteous Remission! Now, let's talk sass—according to Luther, any true Christian, whether living or deceased, could snag blessings from God without having to front those indulgence letters! Can I get an amen?!

   • Thesis #36: Every repentant Christian gets a free pass on sins, no tickets required!

   • Thesis #37: If you're a true Christian, honey, you’re already blessed—no middleman needed! Boom!

5. Artistic Drama: Protestant Style! The visual arts took center stage in this divine drama. Protestantism said, "We’re keeping it simple and humble, celebrating piety, and ditching those gold-trimmed, flashy altars!" No more bling-bling!

6. Ditching Idolatry, Baby! Those fabulous reformers weren’t just playing—oh no! They attacked what they called the idolatry of Catholic artwork, especially all those glorified images of Jesus and Mary! It was all about trimming the excess, keeping it real and relatable.

7. Iconoclasm? Let’s Smash It! Some queens took it a bit further and brought the drama with iconoclasm, which means tearing down religious imagery—like breaking the glass ceiling, baby!

There you have it, my lovelies! The Protestant Reformation was all about shaking things up, serving truth to power, and redefining the relationship between church and faithful! Now who’s ready to sashay away?

Renaissance Philosophy

Alright, darlings, it's time to spill the tea on this Renaissance humanism mess, and I'm serving it hot! Here’s why it’s such a spicy topic:

1. Classical humanism, honey, is all about boosting the ego of man! They say "man is the measure of all things." Really? How self-centered can you get?!

2. Then they act like the best way to worship God is to admire humans, like, excuse me?! That's a bit too much self-love, don't you think?

3. Humanist education was all about studying classical works. Great! But what about everything else they neglected?

4. They insisted on educating not just the mind but the whole person, which sounds fab, but what about some good old spiritual reflection, huh?

5. Oh, and the whole "glory of man lies in activity" nonsense from Leonardo Bruni? Please! Sometimes, it’s okay to just relax!

6. Let’s chit-chat about citizenship and public duty. They make it sound so noble, but don't you dare forget those responsibilities can feel like chains!

7. And that so-called "spirit of inquiry and experimentation"? Yes, queen, but the pressure to constantly innovate is just exhausting!

8. Lastly, their bright ideas led to advancements like tech and sciences—sure, but can we take a moment to catch our breaths amidst all this change?

So, there you have it, my fabulous friends. Renaissance humanism: a mixed bag of glitter

Notable Philosopher

1. 🎤Snatched Change: Bye-bye, Middle Ages power! ✨ The Renaissance was all about shaking up how politics was viewed—no more just through the Christian faith lens, darling!

2. 🌟 Historical Glow-Up: Thinkers started to see the past as shaped by human actions, not just some divine intervention. You go, historians!

3. 🔥 Freedom from Faith: Oh honey, they busted free from church ties, embracing nonreligious realism in politics!

4. 👑 Machiavelli the Icon: Enter Niccolò Machiavelli, the pop star of political thought, who shouted, "Let’s mix it up and focus on science over doctrines!"

5. 💅 Endgame Principles: In his fab masterpiece, The Prince, he declared that "the ends justify the means," and we’re all here for that boldness!

Niccolo Machiavelli and Changing Renaissance Politics

The Fabulous Lessons from Machiavelli's The Prince:

1. Pamper or Annihilate, Honey!: Choices, choices! You best be treating your subjects like royalty or watch them go down in flames! ⚡️

2. Change Is the Name of the Game!: People are like feathers in the wind, darling! They’ll flip-flop faster than a queen at a pageant! 🌬 Make sure you keep ‘em in check before they sashay away!

3. Loved or Feared?: Here’s the tea, sweetie – it’s cute to be loved, but let’s be real, fear gives you the upper hand every time! So embrace your inner diva and strut with power! 💪💅

4. True Bonds?: Love can shatter faster than a broken heel, but fear? That sticks around with a grip tighter than Spanx! 💘 So, darling, choose wisely how you rule!

Renaissance Philosophy Vocabulary

Rhetoric - One of the five disciplines of the humanities, the study of persuasive speech

Bruni - Believed “the whole glory of man lies in activity”

Renaissance Literature

Renaissance literature explored diverse styles, focusing on individual psychological complexity alongside the social and moral structures prevalent in medieval literature. The revival of classical culture introduced complex philosophical and political questions, leading some writers to find conflicts between Christian and classical ideas, while others blended them into a form of Christian

Notable Works

The Prince

• One of the major themes addressed in this work was the importance of the political state over the religious state.

• The most important part of this treatise is the chapter in which Machiavelli reinforces the distinction between being a good person and pretending to be a good person.

• This political treatise was dedicated to Lorenzo de'Medici in the hopes that he would rise to restore Italy to its previous honor and pride.

The Courtier

• This work utilizes the technique of a Renaissance dialogue, a literary form that incorporates elements of drama, conversation, philosophy, and essay.

• The major themes touched upon in this work were Individualism and Self-Fashioning.

• In this work by Castilglione, a group of attendees at the court of Duke Urbino compete with each other to describe desirable personal qualities.

Renaissance Theater

Fabulous Highlights of Early Renaissance Theater, Honey! 🎭✨

1. Morality & Mystery Plays:

   • Early Renaissance theater kept the sassy spirit of the Middle Ages alive with those oh-so-dramatic morality and mystery plays. They had audiences clutching their pearls, for sure!

2. Mid-16th Century Shake-Up:

   • By the time we hit the mid-1500s, darlings, the international theater scene was like—"Fierce no more!" Fragmented and flailing, it found a new groove thanks to a rekindled love for classical Greek drama and rules against religious plays. Bye-bye, holy vibes! 👋✝

3. Commedia dell'Arte:

   • Enter the comedic queens: commedia dell'arte! These fabulous troupes were all about improvisation, bringing lives to stock scenes and sketches as they sashayed through Europe on temporary stages, serving laughs and drama like it’s hot! 💃😂

4. Queen Elizabeth I’s Green Light:

   • Our diva, Queen Elizabeth I, adored the theater! She was like, "Yes, baby! Write me some plays!" She threw her royal weight behind playwrights, including the iconic Shakespeare, ruling the English drama scene with an iron fan! 👑📝

5. From Amateurs to Professionals:

   • Those old amateur days went bye-bye, honey! The stage became a platform for paid professional actors who strived to elevate their craft and audience experience—and we just love to see it! 💖

6. The Globe Theater:

   • Out came fabulous venues like the one and only Globe Theater, where drama came to life! It was decked to the nines, exclusively for theatrical performances—talk about a fabulous home! 🌍🏛

7. Five-Act Structure:

   • Renaissance playwrights snatched the five-act structure from Greek and Roman plays, establishing the divine format that made storytelling flow like a sweet cocktail! 🍹📖

8. Tragedy & Comedy Reimagined:

   • They re-discovered tragedy and comedy, darling! Poised to dive deep into the moral, political, and psychological matters of the time—serving drama like it was a buffet of heart and wit! 🎭👏

9. Critiquing Religion:

   • Though theater took a step back from church teachings, religion remained a spicy topic! Playwrights served some divine shade, critiquing what it meant to be pious. Think Doctor Faustus—having a moral conflict has never been this lush! ✨💔

10. Rational Characters vs. Silly Foils: The plays often had smart, rational characters fighting it out with their silly counterparts, showcasing a clash of wits. Host a dramatic discussion while traveling to exotic lands to discuss the flaws of their home countries—now

Renaissance Techniques

• Complex Language and Literary Devices in Renaissance Works:

  • Playwrights used varied language to reflect the regions and social classes of characters.

  • Shakespeare: Known for his mastery of dialect.

  • Marlowe: Utilized poetry and common language to show social differences.

• Common Linguistic Devices:

  • Dialect: Language specific to a group, region, or social class.

  • Blank Verse: Metered poetry, typically in iambic pentameter, that does not rhyme.

  • Prose: Everyday non-poetic speech.

• Complex Literary Devices Used onstage:

  • Soliloquy: A character speaking their thoughts aloud.

  • Allegory: Concepts or themes represented in a tangible

Notable Works

Hamlet

• This play explores death as a theme in a very different way than the ancient Greeks and Romans did.

• Mirroring is a prominent theme.

Doctor Faustus

• Strongly reflects Reformation beliefs.

• Written by Marlowe

• Uses allegory.

Unit 4 - Neoclassical Period and the Enlightenment

• Skepticism: The school of "rational skepticism" was prominent during the Enlightenment to ensure that philosophers reached conclusions based on reason, not prejudice. Comes from Greek philosophical school of thought

• Rationalism: The philosophy of rationalism also put an emphasis on the role of reason as the key to knowledge.

• Empiricism: First developed in the Renaissance by scientists such as Francis Bacon, empiricism may be defined as basing ideas and theories on the direct experience of the senses, including experimentation, as opposed to knowledge gained from books. The scientific method.

• Order: Enlightenment thinkers and leaders sought to design political and social order that reflected natural laws and God's will.

• Deism: A shift in religious thinking also took place with the growth of deism, a belief system that credits God as the original architect of the universe's natural laws but who does not currently oversee the events of the world. They believe Gid created the laws which govern the universe but that he does not interfere with the natural world or lives of people.

• Classicism: In the arts, a resurgence of classical ideals like harmony, realism, and reason inspired the Neoclassical movement.

  Neoclassical aesthetics focus on realism, classism, and harmony and balance.

Contexts: The Age of Enlightenment (Age of Reason)

Honey, Let Me Break Down the Age of Enlightenment for You:

1. Cultural Movement Extravaganza! 🌍✨

   • This fabulous period, known as the Age of Reason, strutted its stuff from the 1670s to the late 1700s, honey!

2. Encyclopédie, Baby! 📚💖

   • The star of the show was the French Encyclopédie, a marvelous collaboration of experts spreading knowledge like confetti!

3. Question Everything! ❓✊

   • The Enlightenment queens were all about tossing the status quo and questioning authority, darling! Why accept it when you can strut your own truth?

4. Science is in! 🔬🌟

   • Sciences like astronomy, biology, and chemistry were the talk of the town—let’s give it up for rational thinking!

5. Down with Monarchy! 👑🚫

   • Those fierce thinkers dared to question rulers' divine rights, pushing for political changes that lit the spark of revolution!

6. Morality, Without the Manual! 🤔💁‍♂

   • Skeptics looked for moral bases outside the church, serving thought-provoking vibes that shook up the religious scene!

7. Nature’s Laws Are In! 🌱✨

   • They decided not to rely on heavenly dogma and started exploring nature itself as the ultimate authority, turning the spotlight on human understanding!

8. Laws of Nature & God! 📜❤

   • You know it, darling! The Declaration of Independence brought some Enlightenment flair, saying nature’s laws granted them freedom!

9. Deism: A Spicy Twist! 🔥✝

   • This cool concept mixed love for God with a pinch of skepticism, saying that divine teachings weren’t the only way to know right from wrong!

10. Stand Up for Your Beliefs! ✊💖

    • As religious power faded, embracing diverse beliefs and ideas became the new fabulous trend—tolerance was the runway hit, baby!

11. Philosophes: Enlightened Icons! 🎓🌟

    • Watch out, because these French thinkers often risked it all for their daring ideas, facing imprisonment for their outspoken views. Fierce, right?! ✊💅

Alright, let's break this down step by step so it’s really easy to understand, okay? Here’s the deal about the Age of Enlightenment, or what some folks like to call the "Age of Reason":

1. What It Was: This was a big movement in Europe and America that happened roughly from the 1670s to the late 1700s. It's like a glow-up for human thinking!

2. Why It Matters: People were all about celebrating our intelligence! Imagine everyone agreeing that using your brain is super important.

3. French Encyclopédie: This was a really, really big book created by smart people that covered tons of topics. It was all about spreading knowledge and making people's lives better. Think of it as a giant, super helpful encyclopedia!

4. Questioning Authority: Enlightenment thinkers liked to ask, "Why?" It was a time when people started to question things like why kings had the right to rule just because they were born into it. This eventually led to changes in how governments worked.

5. Scientific Discoveries: Science was like the rockstar of this age—people made lots of new discoveries in fields like astronomy (stars and planets), biology (living things), human anatomy (the body), and chemistry (how substances work together).

6. Rationalism: This meant relying on reason and common sense. It was all about using your brain instead of just accepting things because someone said so.

7. Natural Laws: Enlightenment thinkers believed that human nature had its own set of rules, called natural law, based on reason. They thought these rules were just as important as any laws made by people.

8. Religious Changes: People started to think differently about religion too. A group of thinkers called deists believed in God but thought you shouldn’t have to follow every rule from religious texts to be a good person. Thomas Jefferson even made his own version of the Bible by picking out what he thought was the best parts!

9. Freedom and Tolerance: It became important to recognize and respect different opinions about politics and religion, even if you didn’t agree with them. This was all about creating a friendlier world for everyone.

10. Philosophes: These were the smart and brave thinkers from France who sparked many of these discussions. They often faced big risks for sharing their ideas, like being thrown in jail for questioning the government or church.

11. Lasting Impact: Ideas from this time, like separating church and state, respecting different beliefs, and free speech, are things we still talk about today! But back then, they were really controversial!

Religion of the Enlightenment

Key Points:

During the Enlightenment, there was a dramatic shift away from traditional Judeo-Christian religious thought.

• Many intellectual philosophes, inspired by scientific discoveries in physics and biology, preferred deism, a belief system that credits God as the world's creator, who established the natural law and order but who otherwise does not interfere with humanity.

• The philosophes embraced deism largely because it was a concept that appealed to the rational mind. Deism rejected the details of Christianity and believed in a deity who ordained the order in the universe and let that order operate.

• Deists did not practice worship or ritual, since they did not believe in divine intervention, but instead strove to understand the order that God put into place.

More Detailed:

OMG, like, let’s totally chat about the Age of Enlightenment, okay? So, during this epic time, thinkers were, like, super over that whole intense Christianity thing that was, like, totally everywhere during the Baroque Period. I mean, seriously, who can even?! 🙄✨

Instead, these brainy peeps were all about science and stuff, focusing on physics and biology, which is, like, way cooler, right? So, they decided that deism was, like, the new vibe! Deism was, like, this belief that believes in a deity who created everything but doesn’t, like, insert themselves in our daily drama. I mean, how chill is that? 😇🌌

Now, these smarty-pants, called philosophes, were, like, intellectual royalty! They were all about this thing called "natural law," which is, like, saying that everything in life is all orderly and super rational. They were so done with, like, both religious and political authority. Like, bye-bye priests and kings! 🥳👑

For them, it’s all about using their brains to figure life out, rather than being told what to do. So rad! These deist thinkers were into the whole idea of God being all, “Here’s the universe, go figure it out, babes,” instead of swooping in and doing miracles every time someone sneezes. Like, hello, logic?! 😲💁‍♀

They totally believed that God made the world with laws and just let everything flow like a fab river. So, instead of focusing on rituals and emotional stuff, they were, like, all about understanding the universe and its rules. Like, what’s not logical about that? 💖📘

This whole vibe shift totally changed everything, sweetie. While established churches were still trying to keep it together, religion wasn’t, like, the main focus for those who preferred reason over blind faith. This also, like, totally influenced the art scene, because a lot of artists ditched those heavy Christian themes for more, like, rational and relatable ones! 🎨🙌

So there you go

Philosophy of the Enlightenment

Key Concepts

During the Enlightenment, reason, rational thinking, and observation were key to uncovering philosophical truths. Enlightenment philosophers were concerned with abstract concepts pertaining to the social realm, such as justice, morality, law, government, and basic human rights. They developed their theories in conjunction with scientific theories and modes of thinking developed prior to and during this period. Three prominent philosophical movements during the Enlightenment were rationalism, empiricism, and skepticism.

• Rationalists believed that human reason is the key to knowledge.

• Empiricists believed that all knowledge is derived through our senses and based on ideas and theories on testing, observation, and experience.

• Skepticism departed from both rationalism and empiricism in that it criticized our ability to perceive and understand the world around us, acknowledging the limitations of human reasoning.

Key Enlightenment Philosophers

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the native peoples encountered through trade and colonization were, in some ways, morally superior, arguing that a person is at his or her best in wholly natural environments and is corrupted by the environments of society.

  • He did not rock with slavery

• Denis Diderot helped create the greatest encyclopedia in the 18th century alongside Jean le Rond d’Alembert He wrote philosophical dialogues that explored the theory and consequence of materialism: the idea that the universe is entirely composed of matter and without a God.

• The Encyclopédie represented a fundamental principle of the Enlightenment: to accumulate, codify, and preserve human knowledge by providing rational information on important topics to the general public. Written by Jean le Rond d’Alembert and Denis Diderot

• John Locke was one of the most influential philosophers and political theorists in British history. Many current ideas about selfhood, identity, and the way the mind works come from Locke. Locke also wrote highly influential books on government, providing a basis for the American political experiment.

  • Published Two Treatises of Government, which paved the way for modern forms of democracy.

  • For Locke and empiricists, moral behavior is based on pleasure and pain. We decide morality based on our senses

• Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer, philosopher, and feminist who argued for the advancement of women, affirming that women were capable of rationality and that they should be educated.

Literature of the Enlightenment

Key Concepts

• Enlightenment literature was focused on rational prose and social reform.

• The Enlightenment cultivated the novel, a longer form of prose that allowed for more complex plot and character development. This genre was a perfect vehicle for the period theme of sympathy, since authors had the literal space to develop characters richly and to devise intricate plots.

• Enlightenment literature often blended real life with philosophical or ethical reflection, making biographies, essays, and travel narratives very popular.

• The printing press popularized literature and made it available to people of all social classes.

• Popular authors and works of the Enlightenment included:

  • Volaire, whose novel Candide satirizes the idea that this world is the best possible and instead encourages people to examine critically their traditions.

  • and Jonathan Swift's satire Gulliver's Travels

Literature of the Enlightenment Synopsis

Enlightenment Literature: A Valley Girl's Take! 💁‍♀✨

1. Novels Are All the Rage: Like, the whole world of reading totally leveled up during the Enlightenment, right? Authors were bringing the novel into fashion, like, huge! It was a new way for people to think and feel deeply, which was super exciting!

2. Length is Key, Babe!: The fact that novels were, like, longer meant writers could craft some seriously complex characters and plots. It was like they had a whole runway to strut their stuff and show off their storytelling skills!

3. Feelings Matter: But, uh, it wasn't just about logic and stuff, you know? This era was, like, all about sensibility, which is basically emotions, darling! Enlightenment thinkers totally believed that being human and feeling things made us good and moral—like, way important!

4. Emotional Drama: Novels had this fab role in capturing those intense feelings, like sympathy and all that jazz, allowing readers to experience emotional depth. Longer stories meant more time to connect with characters and understand their journeys—totally awesome!

5. Pamela Set the Scene: Over in Britain, you had this book called Pamela by Samuel Richardson, which was one of the first novels to seriously focus on feelings and even tried to bring about some social change. Like, go, girl!

6. Teaching Moments: Enlightenment lit was all about teaching stuff while being fab! Whether it was fiction or nonfiction, these works wanted to, like, educate the reader and shake things up in society.

7. Laughter Meets Critique: Then you had satire, which was, like, a big deal! Authors would poke fun at people and situations to highlight how, like, silly contemporary faults were. Imagine Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver's Travels making us giggle while also making a point about human nature!

8. Making Reading Accessible: With the printing press making books pop up everywhere, suddenly reading wasn’t, like, just for the rich peeps anymore! Everyone could dive into this literary world, and it totally democratized learning!

9. **Smart

Gulliver’s Travels and Candide

Gulliver's Travels

• This work is critical of meaningless religious controversies.

• This work values older, Classical period over modern writing.

• In this work, various aspects of human nature are explored through beings with a variety of physical attributes

Candide

• In this work, the main character pursues a woman across the narrative. When he finally wins her, she is no longer his ideal.

• This work features a philosopher who is too optimistic.

• This work is critical of traditional social and religious institutions.

• This work critiques outdated social and political practices

Neoclassical Theater

The Neoclassical Theater Overview

1. Origin & Inspiration:

   • Developed in the late 17th and 18th centuries.

   • Borrowed heavily from the Classical Period, drawing ideas from ancient Greek and Roman dramas.

2. Core Principles:

   • Emphasized order and clarity, central to the Neoclassical value system.

   • Focused on structured plots and moral themes, often mirroring society's values.

3. Comedy of Manners:

   • A significant comedic genre that mocked upper-class behaviors, often revealing the absurdity in social norms.

   • Explored the intricate dynamics of relationships between men and women.

4. Production Innovations:

   • Stage productions became elaborate with intricate scenery and detailed costumes, enhancing visual storytelling.

   • Performances were held indoors, allowing for controlled and immersive experiences.

5. Acting Style:

   • Actors utilized stylized language and grand gestures, heightening the drama's theatricality.

   • Emphasis on elevated diction helped convey character's emotions and intentions effectively.

6. Inclusion of Women:

   • This era marked a pivotal moment as women were permitted to act on stage in England, adding depth to performances.

   • The presence of female actors allowed for a richer exploration of gender dynamics in plays.

7. Critical Elements in Plays:

   • Plays like Molière's Tartuffe showcased opulence and religious themes, utilizing detailed costumes and settings to critique societal attitudes.

   • Rather than going for natural and simple, realistic costumes, they went for elaborate costumes and spoke in highly stylized language

Notable Works

Moliere’s Tartuffe

• Piety and Reason

• Satire

• Real versus feigned piety and goodness

• Very critical. offalse religious piety

Neoclassical Art and Architecture

Neoclassicism: An Art Movement That's Totally Fabulous!

1. What is Neoclassicism?

   • It's an 18th-century art and architecture movement inspired by the super chic Greek and Roman aesthetics. Think of it as bringing back the best of the past with a stylish twist made for the Enlightenment!

2. A Reaction to Baroque:

   • This movement showed a major glow-up from the Baroque Period, which was all about over-the-top decorations. Neoclassicism is all about keeping it classy and elegant—like, less is definitely more, right?

3. Artistic Techniques:

   • How did they do it? Neoclassical painters used bright colors and a technique called chiaroscuro—a fancy word that means they played with light and dark to create depth. Their figures look sculptural and just so chic!

4. Philosophical Vibes:

   • This movement embraced key Enlightenment ideals like harmony, clarity, and balance. Imagine a perfectly balanced salad bowl, honey! They were all about pushing civic virtue and moral themes in their art. Powerful stuff!

5. Jacques-Louis David—The Leading Lady:

   • David was a superstar in this movement! He created works that memorialized political themes, championing civic virtue like the fabulous leader he was. His painting Oath of the Horatii shows loyalty and sacrifice, making it such a powerful statement!

6. Civic Virtue Explored:

   • Just picture it: David painted scenes that encouraged people to be super loyal to their country—it’s like he’s telling everyone to be a queen in their own right, serving civic duty with glamour!

Notable Works and Artists

• Jacques-Louis David

• Oath of the Horatii

  • The Roman arches and postures of figures in the painting are indicative of the Neoclassical Period

• Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825): Recognized as the leading Neoclassical painter.

• Artistic Transition: Shifted from ornate Rococo to a more serious and structured Neoclassicism.

• Political Engagement: Actively supported the French Revolution and was friends with Maximilien Robespierre until Robespierre's downfall; thereafter aligned with Napoleon I.

• Political Commentary: Many artworks convey political messages and promote civic duty and loyalty.

• Famous Quote: "I will never, for the future, paint the portrait of a tyrant until his head lies before me on the scaffold."

• Notable Work: Oath of the Horatii (1784) - A prominent Neoclassical piece that served as an inspiration for the revolutionary movement, depicting three brothers from the Roman Horatius family swearing allegiance to Rome

• Angelica Kauffmann

• Self-Portrait

• Angelica Kauffmann (1741-1807): One of the few notable female Neoclassical artists.

• Training: Educated and promoted by her father, Joseph Kauffmann, a Swiss painter.

• Popularity: Became a leading portraitist of her era.

• Social Acceptance: Integrated into European arts and social circles.

• Exhibitions: Displayed her works at the Royal Academy of Arts, where she was a founding member.

• Notable Portraits: Created portraits of prominent figures such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Winckelmann.

• Legacy: Paved the way for future women artists.

• 20th Century Recognition: Featured in Judy Chicago's The Dinner Party (1974-79), an installation honoring important women in history.

• John Singleton Copley

• Watson and the Shark

• John Singleton Copley (1738-1815) was a prominent American Neoclassical painter.

• He was known for his versatility and technical mastery.

• Copley achieved exceptional financial reward and recognition during his lifetime.

• Originally from Boston, Copley later took up permanent residence in England.

• One of his notable history paintings is "Watson and the Shark."

• This painting depicts the true story of Brook Watson, who was attacked by a shark while swimming in Havana Harbor at the age of fourteen

• William Hunter (1718-1783): An anatomist and obstetrician who significantly contributed to the study of the female reproductive process.

• Child in Womb

• The Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures: Authored by Hunter in 1774 and noted for its copper plates engraved by Jan van Rymsdyk.

• Illustrations: Ranked among the best medical illustrations of all time.

• Leonardo da Vinci's Influence: Hunter suggested using da Vinci's drawings from the Royal Collection at Windsor as a drawing model.

• Engravings: Rymsdyk created 31 out of 34 drawings featured in Hunter's book by first doing life-sized red chalk drawings in the dissecting room.

Neoclassical Architecture

Like the paintings and sculpture of this era, Neoclassical architecture moved away from the grand and ornate styles popularized during the Baroque Period and reflected the features of classical Greek and Roman architecture. The following slideshow highlights three structures that showcase this return to classical forms.

• The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin by Carl Gotthard Langhans

• The Pantheon in Paris

• Monticello his plantation home in Virginia

Classical Music

• The classical period in music follows the Baroque Period and precedes the Romantic Period, spanning from about 1730 to 1820.

• This period coincides with the Enlightenment and the Neoclassical movements in other humanities disciplines, including visual arts and theater.

• "Classical" can also refer to music that adheres to Western musical traditions established since the Middle Ages.

• The term does not pertain to the music of Ancient Greece and Rome, as it does in visual arts and theater.

• Classical composers embraced Enlightenment ideals of balance, order, and structural clarity, departing from the elaborate ornamentation of the Baroque and Rococo periods.

• Composers focused on enhancing contrast between musical lines, fostering greater depth and variety in orchestral texture.

• The classical style shifted from the Baroque emphasis on counterpoint and polyphony to a homophonic texture, prioritizing shorter, lyrical melodies over slower, chordal harmonies.

• Instrument families of the Baroque period, such as woodwinds, strings, brass, and keyboard instruments, expanded and evolved during this time, affording composers more flexibility in both solo and ensemble settings.

• Prominent classical composers: Mozart, Joseph Haydn

Notable Works

• Eine kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart)

  • This was originally intended to be five movements, but the minuets. and the trio that comprised the fifth movement were lost lol oops

  • The opening is really vigorous and lively, the second is softer and civilized. These create auditory interest and keep the mood vibrant

  • It has a simple melody which reflects Enlightenment focus on structural clarity

• Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 - I (Mozart)

  • The focal piece of Mozart’s final three symphonic works, titled “The Final Trilogy.”

  • Many critics interpret the tone of No. 40 as grim and distressing. Probably because at the time of writing his wife was dying, his father had just finished dying, and he wasn’t in the top 100 anymore

  • The piece moves between a lot of keys and tempos which makes it sound really frantic

• Symphony No. 101 “The Clock Symphony,” 2nd movement (Chamber Arrangement) (Joseph Haydn)

  • First performed in London’s Hanover Square in 1794, it received instant acclaim

  • He plays the bassoon and pizzicato strings in short oscillating notes spaced evenly in time to create a sound like a clock. Specifically this is meant to represent Big Ben

    • Wtf. Do you know what a bassoon is? Why did you think it was a really long wind instrument?

  • The music gets darker and then goes back to a light cheerful tone as if it wasn’t just crashing out

  • Staccato - Short and separated notes, like a ticking clock

Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Enlightenment

• Reason and scientific thought were central to the Enlightenment era.

• Cultural exchange and diversity played a key role in developing individualized thought and challenging traditional norms.

• The rise of capitalism enabled the greater exchange of information, enhancing self-awareness among individuals.

• A broad access to various cultural knowledge helped intellectuals formulate their own opinions, moving away from biased traditional influences.

• However, it is crucial to recognize that the prosperity linked with capitalism often relied on the exploitation of slavery.

• Slavery exemplifies a system of cultural hegemony, which involved the abduction and forced servitude of individuals, stripping them of their rights.

• At the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, slavery was legal across all thirteen colonies, not being abolished until the Emancipation Proclamation in 1865.

• The legacy of institutionalized racism began with slavery and has continued to resonate into the 20th century and beyond.

• Enlightenment thinkers critiqued slavery as a violation of human rights, contributing to the emergence of the abolitionist movement in North America.

• Many Enlightenment philosophers, authors, and artists emerged as prominent critics of slavery during this period.

• Slave narratives and songs began to circulate, enriching the cultural landscape of the Enlightenment, with Olaudah Equiano's "The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano" being a notable work detailing a slave's pursuit of freedom.

• In addition to slave narratives, slave songs—or spirituals—emerged during this period.

• Slaves were denied religious practices and musical instruments from their cultures, leading to alternative forms of expression.

• They utilized dancing, hand clapping, foot tapping, and brooms to recreate African call-and-response rhythms in a style known as "shouts."

• Spirituals were developed by combining shouts, monophonic work songs, field hollers, and Christian hymns of their white owners.

• Spirituals served several purposes:

  • Provided comfort and hope.

  • Expressed the growing Christian faith of the slaves.

  • Relayed covert messages among slaves.

• Harriet Tubman’s Underground Railroad heavily relied on spirituals for communication and guidance for escaping slaves.

• Today, spirituals are recognized as one of America's greatest art forms and contributed to the formation of blues, jazz, and gospel music.

• Diversity played a significant role in shaping Enlightenment philosophies:

  • Enlightenment thinkers believed individualized thought transcended racial and religious lines.

  • Diversity was seen as key to breaking down rigid roles and traditional thoughts.

  • Cultural exchanges across traditional boundaries could foster enlightened, individualized thought and reduce traditional biases.

Unit 5 - The Romantic Period

Major Themes of the Romantic Period

Key Points on Romanticism

• Influence Across Centuries: Romanticism significantly impacted the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, shaping psychology, radical politics, ecology, and innovative art forms.

• Themes of Expression: The Romantic movement embraced themes that transcended religious and scientific dichotomies.

• Political Themes: Nationalism emerged, emphasizing love for one’s heritage during a period marked by colonialism and expansion.

• Historical Context: The Romantic Era coincided with significant events like the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, influencing artistic expressions.

• Exoticism: Foreign cultures were perceived as exotic inspirations, shaping the Romantic fascination with new and unusual themes.

• Internal Changes: As society shifted, Romantics rallied for freedom from tyranny and oppression, focusing on individual rights.

• Romantic Hero: Unlike epic heroes, Romantic heroes were non-traditional figures reflecting internal societal concerns and individuality.

• Passion and Emotion: Emotional expression, especially love and sadness, became central, challenging the rational confines of earlier movements.

• Valuation of Individualism: Focus on the individual’s experience and emotional depth over general societal norms was a hallmark of Romantic art.

• Naturalism: There was a renewed appreciation for nature as an emotionally evocative force, moving beyond scientific analysis to its aesthetic and sublime qualities.

Nationalism

• Many Romantic poets and intellectuals believed in the possibility of creative folk genius.

• They saw creative genius arising not from elitist education but from direct engagement with the artist's native land and origins.

• This obsession with creative folk genius contributed to a sense of nationalism.

• French Romantic paintings often included themes pertaining to radical political events of the time.

• Later Romantic music drew much inspiration from national folk songs and melodies.

• Goethe placed German folkloric themes in his work "Faust," elevating them to the level of classical themes.

• This suggests that the "local" or "folk" can be as powerful and relevant as the "ancient" and "classical."

Exoticism

• Romantic writers, artists, and intellectuals were fascinated by the exotic.

• Many were drawn to events and people from the distant past as well as to distant places, like the Middle East, Asia, and North Africa.

• Due to travel limitations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, any location outside of Europe was often seen as exotic by the Romantics.

• They portrayed exotic locales as more relaxed and sensual compared to Europe.

• With the advance of European colonialism and improvements in travel, many Romantics, such as Lord Byron, ventured to places like the Middle East, Africa, and Asia to gain diverse perspectives.

• Some writings included racist ideas about native peoples and their customs, reflecting a Eurocentric viewpoint.

• The exotic was brought into the homes of many Europeans who had not traveled far from their local environments.

Revolution

• Prominent figures such as:

  • William Godwin (political philosopher)

  • Mary Wollstonecraft (philosopher and feminist)

• Called for:

  • An end to tyranny

  • Ending oppressive social and cultural conditions

  • Equal rights for all people

• Revolutionary ferment during:

  • Late 18th and early 19th century

• Expression found in:

  • Romantic art and literature

• Celebrated events:

  • July Revolution of 1830 in France (by Eugène Delacroix)

  • Other uprisings such as the

Heroism

• Lord Byron was a prominent English poet and adventurer who exemplified Romantic heroism.

• He created the concept of the Byronic hero.

• The Byronic hero is characterized as an exceptional and gifted loner, often misunderstood.

• This hero follows personal passions instead of adhering to traditional societal expectations.

• Byron's Byronic hero is depicted as an anti-hero, challenging norms and traditions.

• The celebration of heroism in Romanticism, particularly through Byron's work, contributed to the enduring legacy of the dark and brooding Romantic hero figure in modern culture.

Passion

• The Romantic poets and artists frequently evoked strong, irrational emotions, especially "passion."

• Romantics argued that true artistic and philosophical authenticity could be exhibited through powerful emotional reactions to events.

• Romantic writers preferred intense feelings of love, sorrow, grief, and romantic longing over logic and reason.

• Notable Romantic poets included Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Blake, who believed that genuine poetry and artistry emerged from the imagination

Individualism

• The Romantics opposed many Neoclassical principles, viewing them as outdated and irrelevant to contemporary issues.

• They celebrated human individuality, emphasizing its importance.

• Key figures of Romantic individualism include:

  • Lord Byron in literature

  • Ludwig van Beethoven in music

• Napoleon Bonaparte was seen as the most individualistic figure of the 19th century, surpassing artists and intellectuals.

• Romantics valued individual freedom, Byronic heroism, nationalism, and the allure of exotic cultures.

• They respected imaginative geniuses like poets and artists as agents of change in political, social, and individual contexts.

• Percy Shelley articulated this belief, claiming that "poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world," highlighting the transformative power of artists and visionary thinkers.

Nature

• The Romantics sought wisdom and solace in the natural world.

• British poets like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge emphasized nature's importance.

• They believed they could separate their thoughts and feelings from the artificial world created by mankind.

• Many Romantics pursued the concept of the sublime in nature.

• The sublime refers to experiences that are grand, magnificent, and exalted, elevating artists beyond the ordinary.

• Romantics appreciated the imposing beauty of nature, capable of evoking strong emotions such as awe and terror.

• These powerful emotions were intended to transport poets to heights of imaginative feelings.

• Romantics aimed to convey these profound feelings to their readers.

Idealism

• Privileges subjectivity over objectivity

• The philosophical position that our knowledge of the world can only be grounded in our mental experiences.

Nationalism

• The philosophical position that states are legitimate if they reflect some natural unity of people based on commonalities like race, language, and culture.

Transcendentalism

• Characterized by a belief that people can become free and self-reliant by returning to nature.

• Ralph Waldo Emerson is considered a founding figure of this movement.

English Romanticism

• "Ode on a Grecian Urn"

• The Prelude

• "The Corsair"

American Romanticism

• Moby Dick; or the White Whale

• Leaves of Grass

The Gothic

• Wuthering Heights

• Jane Eyre

• Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus

• They LOOOOOVE one setting. Eat that up fr

Slave Narratives

• Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl

• "Ain't I a Woman?"

• The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

• They used empathy

Unit 6 - Realism

Realism was a late-19th century counter-reaction to Romanticism

Major Themes of Realism

• Realism was a movement overlapping with the Romantic Period in both time and themes.

• It arose as a strong reaction to the turmoil and revolution of the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Western world.

• Unlike Romanticism, Realism rejected lofty idealism.

• Its focus was on addressing real-life problems stemming from rapid industrialization, urbanization, and the growth of empires.

• Realism emphasized real

• Rejection of Neoclassicism: Realism rejected the 18th-century Neoclassicism that copied ancient Roman and Greek aesthetics.

• Revolutionary Movement: It highlighted the lives of ordinary people, aiming to represent truth based on experience and senses.

• Influence of Darwin: Many Realists were influenced by Charles Darwin's theories on evolution, providing scientific responses to life’s abstract questions that religion previously sought to explain.

• Empirical Proof: Realists favored empirical proof over faith-based truths.

• Accurate Portrayals: Artists and writers focused on producing accurate, unbiased portrayals of the observable world, emphasizing the lower classes and critiquing the established social and political order.

• Connection with Photography: Realism gained popularity alongside the advent of photography, which offered a new avenue for capturing real-life scenes.

• Focus on Real-life Issues: Themes included the devastation from war, the challenges of the Industrial Revolution, urban hardships, and social injustices.

Darwinism

• Darwinism

  • Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection and evolution significantly influenced the beliefs and values of Realism.

  • His publication, On the Origin of Species (1859), provided evidence that biological organisms evolve from simpler forms to more complex modern forms over time.

  • The process of evolution is termed natural selection, where biological traits become extinct if individuals with those traits do not survive and reproduce.

• Scientific Materialism

  • This philosophical view posits that only the physical reality observable through natural sciences exists.

  • It has been associated with movements like Marxism and atheism.

  • Proponents of scientific materialism reject religious beliefs and faith in the unseen.

  • The ideas of Darwinism and Marxism disrupted the religious faith of many during the 19th century.

  • Artists and writers from the Realism movement often expressed materialistic views.

  • Gust

Industrialization

Economic and Class Consciousness

• The Industrial Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848 revealed the disparities between the wealthy and the working classes.

• Realists aimed to portray overlooked social issues, utilizing vernacular and common diction in literature and gritty realism in art.

• This movement highlighted class and racial dynamics tied to imperialism and colonialism.

• Realists often depicted native cultures as "savage" and in need of rescue, which justified colonialism's aggressive expansion.

• Toward the late 19th century, authors like Joseph Conrad began to critique the repercussions of colonialism.

Rapid Industrial and Technological Change

• Industrialization attracted immigrants and farmworkers to urban areas in the U.S. and reshaped lifestyles.

• Following the Civil War, rural populations moved northward, while European immigrants

Individualism

Themes of Individualism in Realism

• Focus on Ordinary Life: Realism portrays the everyday experiences of individuals.

• Comparison with Romanticism: Romanticism emphasized passion and subjective emotional experiences; Realism focuses on accuracy and logic.

• Objective Representation: Realists aim for a truthful depiction of individual lives and interactions.

• Attention to Detail: There's a strong emphasis on minute details in person and environmental portrayals.

• Connection to Empirical Observation: Realism uses scientific evidence and logic to inform artistic perspectives.

• Class Consciousness: Realists illustrate how societal changes affect individuals, highlighting issues related to class and struggle.

• Honesty in Artistic Expression: Realists do not hesitate to depict

Age of Doubt

Tensions Shaping the Realist Period

1. Tension between idealism and reality:

   • The contrast between past idealism and present harsh realities, alongside future insecurity, shaped a unique sensibility in the Realist Period characterized by both optimism and anxiety.

2. Middle-Class Values:

   • Social values during this time reflected earnestness in individual responsibility, propriety, and productivity among the middle classes.

3. Underlying Foreboding:

   • Despite the ideologies of progress, there existed a competing sense of foreboding regarding the impacts of modernization.

   • Some people celebrated the era of promise and progress, while others questioned the benefits of industrial growth, recognizing negative repercussions affecting many.

4. Aesthetics of Uncertainty:

   • This uncertainty was commonly expressed in the aesthetics of the time.

   • Realist novels closely depicted societal transformations and individual consciousness, focusing on characters facing complex moral dilemmas.

5. Poetry's Evolution:

   • Poetry during the Realist Period continued some lyrical traditions of Romanticism, while also conveying a longing for traditional ways and regret over their loss.

6. Visual Arts' Challenge to Convention:

   • Many artists in visual arts broke from convention by portraying ordinary individuals in unidealized settings to reveal the harshness of modern life.

7. Skepticism at the Century's End:

   • By the century's

Realist Literature

French Realists

• More concerned with documenting the people, places and contemporary social mores of all classes of French society.

• Honoré de Balzac belonged to this group of writers. He found literary success with his collection of fiction titled La Comédie humaine.

English Realists

• Dealt with subjects and characters that were seemingly inconsequential in an upwardly mobile society.

• The most notable author from this group is Charles Dickens

Russian Realists

• One of the most famous authors from this group is Leo Tolstoy whose famous works include Anna Karenina and War and Peace.

American Realists

• The themes explored by these authors included urbanization, industrialization, and the expression of moral and psychic exhaustion caused by the Civil War.

• Mark Twain belonged to this group of writers. His most famous work is The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in which a boy runs away from home along with a runaway slave.

Acronyms

Classical: B/RTH P/RD

B/RTH represents Balance, Reason/Truth, and Humanism

P/RD represents Polytheism, Republic, and Democracy

Renaissance: RUSH RoCS

RUSH represents Reformation, University System, Scientific Expansion, and Humanism

RoCS represents Rebirth of Classicism and Self-fashioning

Neoclassical: CORDES

CORDES represents Classicism, Order, Rationalism, Deism, Empiricism, and Skepticism

Romantic: INNER HP

INNER: Individualism, Nationalism, Nature, Exoticism, and Revolution

HP: Heroism and Passion

Realism: I ID AoD

I: Industrialization

ID: Individualism and Darwinism

AoD: Age of Doubt

Types of Philosophy:

• Metaphysics (nature of being and the world)

• Epistemology (nature and scope of knowledge)

• Ethics (moral philosophy)

• Aesthetics (nature of beauty and art)

• Logic (nature of reasoning)

• Philosophy of mind (nature of the mind and its relationship to the body)