Midterms

Unit 1 (1491–1607)

Big Picture Theme

Before 1492, the Americas were already populated, diverse, and complex. European exploration after 1450—driven by new technology, religious motives, and economic ambition—connected the Old and New Worlds, triggering massive demographic, environmental, and cultural change known as the Columbian Exchange.

Peopling of the Americas

  • Native peoples likely migrated via:

    • Bering Land Bridge (Beringia)

    • Coastal routes by boat

  • By 1492:

    • ~54 million people lived in the Americas

    • Societies ranged from nomadic tribes to advanced civilizations (Aztec, Inca)

  • North America had less dense populations than Mesoamerica → easier European conquest

European Motives for Exploration (1450–1600)

Gold, God, Glory

  • Economic: access to Asian trade (spices, silk), precious metals

  • Religious: spread Christianity, crusading spirit from Reconquista

  • Political: competition among European powers

  • Technological:

    • Caravel

    • Compass, astrolabe

    • Improved cartography and cannon

Europeans Enter Africa

  • Portuguese led exploration of West Africa

  • Established coastal trading posts (not inland conquest)

  • Traded:

    • Gold

    • Ivory

    • Slaves (initially for sugar plantations in Atlantic islands)

  • African rulers controlled inland trade → Europeans depended on them

Atlantic Islands: The “Training Ground”

(Canaries, Azores, Madeiras)

  • First plantation systems

  • Heavy use of enslaved labor

  • Environmental damage: deforestation, soil erosion

  • Indigenous Guanche people:

    • Enslaved

    • Decimated by disease

    • Nearly extinct by 1500

      • Blueprint for colonizing the Americas

Columbus and the New World

  • Columbus sought a westward route to Asia

  • Sponsored by Spain (1492)

  • Believed he reached the Indies (he didn’t)

  • His voyages:

    • Connected two previously isolated worlds

    • Triggered European colonization

The Columbian Exchange

Definition: The transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds

From the Americas → Old World

  • Maize (corn)

  • Potatoes

  • Tomatoes

  • Squash

  • Tobacco

    • Fueled European population growth

From Old World → Americas

  • Horses, cattle, pigs

  • Wheat

  • Sugar

  • Diseases: smallpox, measles, influenza

    • Caused catastrophic Native population decline (up to 90%)

Key Point:

  • Native depopulation was caused mainly by disease, not military defeat.

Spanish Conquest of the Americas

  • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494):

    • Spain & Portugal divide the New World

  • Conquistadors motivated by:

    • Gold

    • God

    • Glory

  • Encomienda system:

    • Natives forced to labor

    • Colonists promised Christianization

Mexico & Peru

  • Aztecs defeated (1521)

  • Inca defeated (1530s)

  • Native population collapse:

    • Mexico: 20 million → 2 million

  • Creation of mestizos (Spanish + Native ancestry)

  • Precious metals fueled European economies

Environmental & Cultural Impact

  • Europeans reshaped land:

    • Introduced livestock

    • Cleared forests

    • Disrupted Native farming & hunting

  • Native societies:

    • Lost land

    • Lost autonomy

    • Forced cultural adaptation

Spanish Borderlands

  • St. Augustine (1565): first permanent European settlement in North America

  • Pueblo Revolt (1680):

    • Native uprising against Spanish rule

    • Rejection of Christianity and forced labor

The “Black Legend”

  • Idea that Spanish were uniquely cruel

  • Often exaggerated or used by rival European powers

Unit 2 Study Guide (1607–1754)

Big Picture Theme

Between 1607 and 1754, European nations established permanent colonies in North America. These colonies developed distinct regional identities based on geography, labor systems, and relations with Native Americans, while remaining tied to Europe through mercantilism and imperial rivalry.

European Colonization Goals

  • Economic: land ownership, trade, raw materials

  • Religious: spread Christianity, create religious havens

  • Political: expand power, compete with rival empires

Major Colonial Powers

  • Spain – Southwest & Florida

  • France – Canada & Mississippi River Valley

  • England – Atlantic Coast (13 colonies)

  • Netherlands – New Netherland (later New York)

English Colonization

Jamestown (1607)

  • First permanent English colony

  • Founded for profit, not religion

  • Early struggles:

    • Disease

    • Starvation

    • Poor leadership

  • Saved by:

    • John Smith’s leadership

    • Tobacco cultivation (John Rolfe)

Headright System

  • Land grants to settlers who paid for passage

  • Encouraged immigration

  • Increased demand for labor

Labor Systems

Indentured Servitude

  • Dominant early labor system

  • Europeans worked 4–7 years for passage

  • Declined due to:

    • Rising life expectancy

    • Bacon’s Rebellion

Slavery

  • Increased after 1676

  • Africans enslaved permanently

  • Became central to Southern economy

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)

  • Poor farmers vs. colonial elite in Virginia

  • Causes:

    • Limited land

    • Native American conflict

    • Political exclusion

  • Effects:

    • Planters turned to African slavery

    • Weakened use of indentured servants

Regional Colonial Differences

New England Colonies

  • Economy:

    • Small farms

    • Fishing

    • Shipbuilding

    • Trade

  • Society:

    • Family-centered

    • Town meetings

    • High literacy

  • Religion:

    • Puritanism

    • Belief in a “city upon a hill”

Middle Colonies

  • Economy:

    • Grain farming (“breadbasket”)

    • Trade

  • Diversity:

    • Ethnic

    • Religious

  • More tolerant society

Southern Colonies

  • Economy:

    • Cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo)

    • Plantation system

  • Labor:

    • Enslaved Africans

  • Society:

    • Wealthy planter elite

    • Fewer cities

Native American Relations

  • Early cooperation:

    • Trade

    • Survival assistance

  • Increasing conflict:

    • Land disputes

    • Disease

    • Expansion

  • Key conflicts:

    • Pequot War

    • King Philip’s War

  • Result:

    • Native displacement

    • European territorial control

Religion & the Great Awakening

First Great Awakening (1730s–1740s)

  • Religious revival movement

  • Emphasized:

    • Emotional preaching

    • Personal faith

  • Key figures:

    • Jonathan Edwards

    • George Whitefield

  • Effects:

    • Challenged authority

    • Encouraged individualism

    • Increased religious diversity

Colonial Government & Society

  • Colonies practiced self-government

  • Examples:

    • House of Burgesses

    • Town meetings

  • Salutary neglect:

    • Britain loosely enforced laws

    • Colonists grew politically independent

Mercantilism & Trade

  • Colonies existed to benefit the mother country

  • Raw materials → England

  • Manufactured goods → colonies

  • Navigation Acts regulated trade

Imperial Rivalry

  • Britain vs. France vs. Spain

  • Competition over land & trade

  • Led to increasing military conflict

  • Sets stage for French & Indian War (Unit 3)