Forensic Anthropology Syllabus notes Required textbook- can get online from pitt library CPB book Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink
Forensic Anthropology
Syllabus notes
Required textbook- can get online from pitt library
CPB book
Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2025). Forensic anthropology: current methods and practice, 3rd edition. Cognella.
Ebook ISBN: 979-8-8233-7695-2
Print ISBN: 979-8-8233-7526-9
8/24/26 notes
NO RECITATIONS THIS WEEK!!
Next week= full throttle
Recitation room: same one as the archaeology lab
Office hours are tentative right now
Archaeology class will help with some parts of this course- neolithic and archaeological remains as well as osteobiology
Will learn the basics of what bone is what
Readings that don't come out of the textbook are available on canvas
FINAL EXAM IS DURING FINALS WEEK: Tuesday, 12/8 2:00-3:50pm
Skeletal CASTS are on reserve at Hillman just for this course
Wednesday: the history of forensic anthropology
No separate study guide for exams: will get info on the format of the exam
*overviews and objectives are basically a study guide that you’ll just add on to every class
No attendance during lecture, will take during recitation
Multi-format exams, no essays
Lots of it are in a case-study format
Reading the book is not as important as coming to lecture and recitation
RECITATION AND LABS ARE VERY VERY IMPORTANT!
8/26/26
Objectives
Define forensic anthropology
Understand where forensic anthropology fits under the broader umbrella of anthropology
Articulate the circumstances in which anthropology may assist in an investigation
Explain the difference in roles and responsibilities of a medical examiner and an anthropologist
Explain the importance of formative cases of the early history of forensic anthropology
Parkman Murder of 1849
Luetgert Case of 1897
Ruxton Case of 1935
Forensic Anthropology definition
The application of standard anthropological techniques, based on osteological (bones), taphonomic (everything that happens from the point of death to the point that the skeleton is discovered), and archaeological principles, in the recovery and assessment of human remains in medicolegal investigations
When can forensic anthropology assist an investigation?
1. Unidentified, dismembered, or isolated carrion (unit of dead and/or decaying flesh)
Decomposing
Burned
Fragmented
Cremated
2. Skeletonized material
3. Multiple fatalities
Airplane crashes
Wars
May be part of international human rights (Bosnia, Iraq, Guatemala)
Acts of nature
4. Persons of historic interest
Last czar of Russia
Victims of the Titanic
5. When whole body…
Radiographing of extensive injury
Sequence and trajectory of multiple bullet wounds
Determining age from bones
Who’s at a crime scene or involved in evidence analysis
Death investigator
Law enforcement
CSI
Ballistics
Blood spatter analyst
Trace evidence analyst
DNA expert
Entomologists
Botanist
Fingerprint experts
Media
Medical Examiner
Soft tissue
Legal authority over cause of death
Don't really come to the scene of the death
Anthropologist
Hard tissue
No legal authority over cause of death
Overlap the work of an ME (osteology) and CSI (archaeology)
Coroners
Don't need to be a medical doctor, elected in
Historical Background
Formative period- the first cases- all high profile- drew attention to forensic science
Parkman murder of 1849
Physical evidence: Parkman was dismembered; body parts found in anatomy lab, privy, burnt head in furnace
Anatomy was becoming important in U.S. medical institutions
Lots of anxiety surrounding medical schools
Considered to be immoral and unethical because they dug up the bodies of marginalized communities
Parkman
Medical physician who established a large asylum for “the insane” in Boston
Medical community didn’t love him, so he became a landlord to become unliked more
Went missing, eventually his body parts were found in Webster’s Chemistry lab
Webster
Chemistry professor at Harvard
Lent money from Parkman
Dr Jeffries Wyman
Professor of anatomy at Harvard, examined the bones from the furnace
Testified that all the bones were from one person
30-40 pieces of cranium fragments
Fragments of a temporal bone
Coronoid process of the lower jaw
Right side of the lower jaw
A fragment of the 1st and 2nd or 3rd cervical vertebrae
Humerus fragment
Fragments of a leg bone
Fragments of hand and foot bones
Reassembled the body (with Holmes)
Determined age and height
Consistent with Parkman
Dr Keep
Dr Parkman's dentist since 1825
Examined the dentures retrieved from the furnace
Able to identify them as the set he made in 1846
Luetgert Case of 1897
Physical evidence: greasy jelly, 4 pieces of bone - together no larger than a quarter, Louisa's ring
Adolph and Louisa Leutgert
Known as the “sausage king”- very wealthy
Adolph didn’t want to be married, killed his wife and put her in the sausage machine
Ruxton Case- the Jigsaw Murders
Husband killed his wife Isabella and maid Mary
Body parts found decomposing in river by bystander
Some fingertips were cut off, some eaten off by marine life
*Important because it’s the first big case where photo super imposition was used
Comparing pictures of a person to a skull to see if it fits
8/31/26
Important people from the Formative Period
Thomas Dwight (1843-1911)
Anatomist
“Father of Forensic Anthropology”
Did the early work on trying to establish age estimates through stature and sex
T. Wingate Todd
Cleveland
1912-1938 - 2,600 skeletons
Hamann-Todd Collection
Robert J. Terry and Mildred Trotter
St. Louis, Missouri
1814-1965 - 1,636 skeletons
Consolidation Period: 1939-1971
Wilton Krogman
Guide for the FBI to use for the identification of human skeletal material
Guide to the identification of Human Skeletal Material
1940s and 1950s
WWII- too many bodies; too quickly
US ARMY- CILHI
Trotter took over as director in 1948
Meticulous record keeping
Developed means of measuring length of long bones to estimate stature
Korean War
ID lab est in Japan
T. Dale Stewart
Used bodies to determine age at death standards
Modern Period: 1972-present
Est. of physical anthropology section of AAFS
Ellis Kerley and Clyde Snow
William Bass: Forensic Anthropology Data Bank
University of Tennessee, Knoxville
AKA the “body farm”
Deviation from standards
Developed computer program to track
FORDISC
American Board of Forensic Anthropology: ABFA
1977
Forensic anthropology journal
Established 2018
Forensic anthropology and Expert Witness Testimony
Not often- most of the time no crime is committed
Most cases- determine whether human bone and, if human bone, assist in determining biological profile- help with identification
Testify- most often when a crime is committed and skeletal evidence can assist in terming guilt or innocence- trauma, recovery, postmortem interval
Ethical guidelines
Do NOT misrepresent qualifications
Treat human remains, caseworkers, colleagues, and invested parties with professional and cultural respect
Ex: NAGPRA
Follow the scientific method
“Do no harm”
A 12-year-old Rosemary disappeared in 1986- believed to be abducted
Skeletal remains discovered in 1994
Forensic anthropologists confirmed that the skeletal remains belonged to Rosemary
Rosemary and her dad were extremely close
In the course of the investigation, it was determined that Rosemary’s dad was NOT her biological father
Should the forensics team reveal this information to Rosemary’s dad?
NO: it does NOT get shared
9/2/26
Are the remains of medicolegal (forensic) significance?
Identification of the decedent
Investigation of unnatural or unattended deaths
Recent (typically within the 50 years- but there are exceptions
Is it bone?
The FIRST question a forensic scientist must ask at a crime scene
How to determine if bone
Macroscopic
Easiest way
Microscopic (but destructive)
XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectrometry)
Bone
Calcium
Phosphorus
Some iron
Tri-state crematory
Located in Noble, Georgia
339 bodies in various states of decomposition
Clyde Snow’s list of questions
Are the remains human?
3 major characteristics of Hominins
Bipedalism
Nonhoning chewing
Large brains
Easy to determine if a bone is human when the joints (or epiphyses) are present
See “Skeletal Anatomy” section and “Bone Microstructure” section!!
Areas of misidentification
Bear paw skeleton looks very similar to a human hand
Remains of a spiral ham looks like a human knee
Do the remains represent a single individual or are they commingled?
MNI= minimum number of individuals
When did the death occur?
Typically, recent (most within 50yrs of the present)
Where we need to understand decomposition rates
Example of when timing becomes important: fetal remains
Was the fetus visible?
Is there evidence of any trauma that cannot be explained by childbirth?
“Trophy” remains
US common practice to bring home the skulls of enemies for display- WWII, vietnam, korean war
Anatomical skeletons
Efforts to repatriate these skeletons
Hardware can help determine its purpose
How old was the decedent?
What was the decedent’s sex?
What is the decedent’s race?
Note: this language is antiquated now; race is NOT biological. It’s a sociocultural construct- we will problematize this
What was the decedent’s stature, body weight, and physique?
Anatomical anomalies?
Cause of death?
What was the manner of death?
Homicide? Suicide? Accident? Natural death?
Skeletal Anatomy
Limbs
More robust in nonhuman animals
Radius and ulna often fused
Tibia and fibula are often fused
Some nonhuman animals lack a fibula
Common misidentification with child bones
Skull morphology
Neurocranial morphology
Splanchnocranial (facial) morphology
Musculature less developed in humans
Mandibles (jaw)
Nonhuman mandibles are often “v-shaped”
Human mandibles are parabolic in shape, whereas nonhuman primates are “u-shaped”
Bone Microstructure
In humans, osteons are scattered and evenly spaced
In nonhumans, there is often osteon banding or plexiform bone
Tricky- bone differs considerably between species and between bones within one animal
Dating Techniques
Radiocarbon dating
Ex. modern bomb curve: 1950-1963
Atmospheric thermonuclear testing resulted in high levels of carbon-14 in terrestrial organisms
9/9/26
Introduction to Human Osteology
Osteology
The science that explores the biology, development, structure, function, and variation of bones
Human osteology
Average adult skeleton- 206 bones
Connective tissue
Mesenchymal cell (type of stem cell)
Has the ability to differentiate into muscle, bone, cartilage…
Types of connective tissue
Irregular
Encapsulate organs, vessels, bones, and muscle
Regular
Bone
Strongest and least flexible of all connective tissues
Ligaments
Bone to bone or cartilage
Tendons
Muscle to bone
Aponeroses
Fascia
Encases muscles, groups of muscles, and large vessels and nerves “plastic wrap”
Elastic
Bone functions
Bone
Is NOT static
Is NOT simple
Is a highly complex organ system
Bone turnover, growth, repair, and disease response
Influences immune system, hormones, and gut microbiome
Protection
Protects the vital organs of the body- brain, heart, lungs, spinal cord
Houses structures essential to the senses
Movement
Provides architecture for ligament and muscle (tendon) attachment to facilitate movement, locomotion, and joint stability
Mineral homeostasis and bioavailability
Particularly, calcium and phosphate
Does NOT just store minerals
“Factory” for the production of blood cells
Critical to the production of cells associated with the innate immune system
A person's first defense against invading pathogens and prevention of infection
Bone anatomy
Classification of bone by shape
Long bones
Tubular bones of the extremities
Flat bones
Are not flat
Form the walls of cavities
Irregular bones
Bones of the facial skeleton
Vertebrae
Carpals and tarsals
Sesamoid bones
Inside of tendons
Not just about shape, but differ in other ways
They are formed differently and grow differently
Differ in vascularization
Differ in biomechanical properties and metabolic function
Differ in vulnerability to pathogens and cancers
Long bone anatomy
Diaphysis
Primary center of ossification
Metaphysis
Epiphysis- proximal/distal
Secondary center of ossification
Epiphyseal line/ cartilaginous growth plate
Periosteum
Wax-like membrane that covers the external surface of the bone
Nutrient foramen
Large foramen that is macroscopically visible on the bone- supplies bone and bone marrow
compact/ cortical bone
cancellous/ trabecular bone
Looks like “spongey bone”
Medullary cavity
Found in the center of the bone- filled with bone marrow
Bone marrow
Bone
The strongest, least flexible connective tissue
Compact, cortical
Thicker in the diaphysis
Thinner at joints
Trabecular, cancellous
Flat bones
Prolific cancellous bone
In the flat bones of the cranium, the cancellous bone is called diploe
9/14/26
Biological Profile of the Skeleton
Biological profile includes
Sex estimation
Estimation of Age
Estimation of Stature
Why Biological Profile is so important
Match unidentified remains with personal records
Includes the same information that is in a missing persons report
Narrows the search for unidentified individual
Biological profile + individualizing characteristics
Assessment of one biological profile will affect assessment of the other biological profiles
For example, need correct sex assessment in order to accurately estimate stature
CODIS
Combined DNA Index System
Includes:
DNA profiles of missing persons
Profiles of unidentified human remains
Profiles from family members
Stature
How it works: estimation of living stature of the skeleton is possible because there is a relationship with individual skeletal elements and height
Early stature estimates
Rearticulate the entire skeleton and measure- it doesn’t really work employing the old methods and RARELY do forensic anthropologists have the entire skeleton
Full Skeleton Methods
The most accurate stature estimation technique is the Full Skeleton Method- when using CURRENT methodology!
Based on the sum of all the vertical measurements of all bones that contribute to stature and then applying a formula
You need:
Skull
Vertebrae
Femur
Tibia
Height of the ankle- talus and calcaneus
Vertebral height can be estimated by averaging the height of the vertebrae above and below the missing vertebra
Regression methods for stature estimation
Based on correlations between height and body segments
These mathematical relationships exist between single bones and living stature AND multiple bones and living stature
How is correlation established?- measure bones from populations with known height
Need complete bones- don’t estimate height if you do not appropriate bones
The femur is the most accurate
This is the bone that contributes the most to living stature (then, lower leg; then, arms)
Formulae are designed for a 95% prediction interval
95% of people with the same bone measurements will fall into the stature range provided by the equation
Of course, this 5% will not fall within this range
Males and females have different proportions and require different equations
There is also variation within and between populations- more research needed
There are also secular changes in relation to height
Not appropriate to use stature methods established in the 1800s and early 1900s
We expect that equations need to be revisited as secular changes occur
FORDISC
Forensic Data Bank Discriminant Functions
Stature in…
Children
Children grow fast
Known living stature of a child will be obsolete very quickly
More research needed
Older Adults
Compression of intervertebral discs or fractures of the vertebral bodies
Causes kyphosis
Additional variables
Shoes, no shoes, what kind of shoes
Morning v. afternoon/evening height
Greater impact in children
Reported height v/ actual height
Body mass of physique
Really problematic!
Weight of cremains
Mostly helpful in determining improper cremation
On average- weight about 2500g
Weigh too little or weigh too much may be a problem (way too!)
Cremains weight (total percentage of body weight)
9/16/26
Anatomical Position
Person facing forward (anteriorly) with palms forward (anterior) and thumbs lateral
The right and left side of the skeleton are labeled in reference to what you see. The right side is the right side of that skeleton, the left side is the left side of that skeleton
Axial vs. Appendicular
Axial
Everything that exists in the midline of the body
The skull, vertebral column, rib cage, data sacrum
Appendicular
Limbs, shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapulae)
Planes
Provide us information about different segments of the body
Sagittal plane
Divides the body into right and left sides
Mid sagittal
Right down the center of the body
Transverse plane
Divides the body into an upper part and lower part
Referenced as the superior portion and interior portion
Coronal plane
Divides the body into a front portion and back portion
Superior/ inferior and cranial/caudal
Superior/ cranial
Things more towards the head
Inferior/ caudal
Things more towards the feet/tail (for animals)
Antierior/posterior and ventral/dorsal
Anterior/ ventral
The front
Posterior/ dorsal
The back
Medial/lateral
Medial
Toward then midline (middle) of the body
Lateral
Away from the midline (middle) of the body
Intermediate
Between the two structures
Proximal/distal
Proximal
Nearest point of attachment to limb or structure
Distal
Farthest away from attachment or origin
Bone cells
Osteoblasts
Build bone
Osteoclasts
Remove bone
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
Cartilage cells
Chrondroblast
Builds cartilage
Chondroclast
Removes cartilage
Chondrocyte
Mature cartilage cells
Bone is a composite material
Part mineral, part collagen
Equates to rigidity and flexibility = strength
Lightweight (only about 30% of total body weight
Composite material of bone includes:
Inorganic mineral content (~60%)
Chemically, the inorganic component is called hydroxyapatite Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂
hydroxyapatite is a specialized crystalline form of calcium phosphate
There are additional trace materials
Organic components (~25%)
Organic component of bone is called osteoid
Mainly collagen fibers
Water (~15%)
Ossification
Intramembranous ossification
Endochrondral ossification
The primary center of ossification
There can only be one primary center of ossification for each bone
Keep in mind that some adult bones start out as multiple bones in the fetus (e.g., os coxa)
Secondary center of ossification
Usually develop in the postnatal period
Shortly after formation of the primary center of ossification, an organized region of rapid growth develops between the epiphysis and the diaphysis – epiphyseal plate
The primary center of ossification expands towards the epiphysis for interstitial (or longitudinal) growth
As bone maturity approaches, cartilage proliferation slows and the epiphyseal plate thins
Bone at the epiphysis thickens and bone at the metaphysis thickens leading to epiphyseal union
This thickened bone leaves a scar in fused bone – epiphyseal line (can be detected on radiographs)
Ultimately, vascular breakthroughs are required for the bone to unite fully and this can occur: centrally, peripherally, or at multiple points
Epiphyseal Fusion
Morphological phases
No fusion
Commencement of fusion
Advanced fusion
Complete fusion
The growth plate is a weak spot in the bone and its resilience to withstand trauma is compromised
15% of all fractures in children involve the growth plate
Appositional growth
The diaphysis must remodel in the transverse plane as it expands longitudinally
The result is a relatively constant ratio between bone addition and bone loss (in healthy bone!)
9/21/26
Can forensic anthropologists determine whether a skeleton is that of a man or a woman?
Nope, never!
Forensic anthropologists can sometimes estimate whether a skeleton is that of a male or female- it depends.
Basic definitions
Sex
Biological differences associated with reproductive organs and functions
Gender
A social identity that may either be self-ascribed or assigned by society
Forensic anthropologists can only assist with estimation of gender when there is material
E.g. clothing, makeup, wings- but not really our preview
The skeletal remains themselves cannot be never used to estimate gender
Homicide and interpersonal violence are very high in the trans community, particularly for trans women. It is important for forensic anthropologists to be well versed on issues affecting the trans community
Sexual Dimorphism
Within a human population, there are differences in males and female forms
Body size, including body mass and height
Males are 10-15% larger in any given population, but significant overlap!
Fat distribution
Females- more in chest and thighs
Males- more in abdomen
Males burn fat more easily than females
Hair distribution, voice
But in humans, this is very slight compared with many of our primate relatives and ancestors
In our close ape relatives, there is also overlap
In humans, there is very little sexual dimorphism
Sex
Historically, and presently, biology has presented sex as binary in which there are males and females, but approximately 2% of the population is intersex
The basis for this determine includes
Genitalia (usually referencing external anatomy)
Presence of testes or ovaries (which produce sex hormones)
Levels of sex hormones
Chromosomes
But these are not the only options
X, xxy, xyy, xxx, xxxx, xxxy
There is no Y
The Y chromosome is too small and does not contain enough genetic information to be compatible with life
**It is important to interrogate the pathologizing of people with these chromosomal differences. These are not recognized as human biological diversity according to clinical medicine
Estimation of Sex
Dependent on
The presence of certain bones
Pelvis- specifically the pubic region
Long bones- specifically for determination of Q- angle and carrying angle
Skull
Must be skewed in one direction on the spectrum
Age is a variable
There will always be people who are placed in the “unknown” category
Pelvis
Major bones that make up the pelvis: Os coxa
3 parts
Ilium
When you put your hands on your hips- you feel this bone
Ischium
You sit on this bone
Pubis
In the front and center
General shape differences
In females: the shape is all about creating room for the fetus to grow and exit
Broadness; pelvic inlet; iliac blades
Sacrum
Shape of the sacrum influences the position of the coccyx
In males, the coccyx may be tucked in
Sciatic notch
How we score things in labs
1= greatest representation of female, 5 being greatest representation of male
From wide to thin, 1 to 5
Pubic bone is by FAR the best
Subpubic concavity (contour)
Ventral arc
Medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus
Skull
Differences in muscle attachments and overall robusticity (most on a scale of 1 to 5)
Bossing
Nuchal crest
External occipital protuberance
Mastoid process
Supraorbital margin
Supraorbital ridge
Mandible
Long bone metric analysis
Age is a variable in sex
Subadults - morphomacroscopic assessments are often inaccurate and have a high inter- observer error rate
We are working on it
Older adults- hormonal changes in adults 50+ can older the bones of the skull and pelvis
Sex estimation becomes less accurate
Human variation
Biological anthropologists are supposed to be human variation experts!
Human variation does not map onto just male or female!Forensic anthropologists and bioarchaeologists are currently working on methods that are more inclusive of the human variation in sex
9/23/26
Dentition
Human teeth
Human teeth are diphyodont- two generations of teeth
Deciduous teeth (sometimes called primary, milk, or baby teeth)
Permanent teeth (sometimes called secondary teeth)
Together- development and maturation of teeth takes almost the whole period before adulthood (skeletal adulthood)
Permanent dentition
32 teeth
Adult humans have a dental formula of: 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3
Deciduous teeth
20 deciduous teeth
Formula: 2.1.0.2/2.1.0.2
Aging the Child skeleton
AGE is always given as a range (or greater than/less than)
Detention is more reliable than bone
When estimating age from BONES, you are estimating “skeletal age”
When estimating age from TEETH, you are estimating “Dental age”
You will not necessarily get the same age range for one individual. This may tell us something about growth disturbance
Assess carefully for pathology- not all methods are suitable!
Estimating age based on Interstitial growth
Longitudinal metrics
Based on interstitial bone growth
Good for estimation of age from fetal and infant skeletons
These are standard measurements for every skeleton
Additional variables to consider
Estimating age based on Union of ossification centers
Epiphyseal and Diaphyseal formation and fusion
Helpful in ageing all children
BUT did people recognize those epiphyses as epiphyses?
The primary center of ossification
There can only be ONE primary center of ossification for each bone
Keep in mind that some adult bones start out as multiple bones in the fetus (e.g., os coxa)
Secondary center of ossification
Usually develop in the postnatal period
Also called epiphyses
Union of ossification centers
Occipital bone
Squamous- laters 2-5 years
Basilar-lateral: 5-7 years
Spheno-occipital: 17-21 years
Estimation of age based on dental growth
Dental development and eruption
Most reliable indicator of age
BUT if very young, we might not have teeth
Eruption
Process by which the tooth advances from the alveolar crypt to its full occlusal position in the mouth
Teeth develop inside of the alveolar bone
The crown and part of the tooth is formed prior to eruption
Completion of the development of the tooth root and its apex occurs after eruption commences
Estimation of age from the dentition
Incisors
Canines
Premolars
Molars
9/27/26
Wednesday: in-class review
Multiformat, hard copy, in person
No recitations next week!
Ageing the Adult Skeleton
Far more challenging to age an adult skeleton than a developing child/fetus
Because most of childhood there is a predictable way in which children are going to develop
Age determination
Subadults
Formation and union of primary and secondary ossification centers
Longitudinal growth
Dental calcification and eruption
Adults
Dental eruption
Auricular surface and pubic symphysis
Sternal end of ribs (4th rib)
Bone histology (osteon density)
Ectocranial and endocranial suture closure (NOT USED ANYMORE)
Will only apply this if it’s the only thing to go on, since it’s not reliable
General guidelines
Remember, age in fetuses, infants, and children is based on skeletal and dental development and growth
Ageing in adults is based on degenerative processes (With the exception of some early adults)
Age is always presented as range (or <, or >)
Accurate age estimation in adults requires a wider age range than estimates in nonadults
Precision is sacrificed for accuracy
Degenerative changes and joints
***When bone is under stress: bone is either destroyed or created ****
Young adults
Teeth
Eruption of the 3rd molars
17-21 years (17-25)
Clavicle
Medial (sternal) epiphysis of the clavicle (last to fuse)
Ossification of the medial epiphysis begins at puberty
No medial epiphyseal flake present
Pre puberty
16-21 years of age
Medial epiphyseal flake appears
24-29 years of age
Medial epiphysis covers the medial surface
22-30 years of age
Complete fusion
Multiple ages represented, but all fused
All over the age of 30 years
Fusion of S1 and S2 (complete fusion = 25+ years)
Fusion occurs in a caudal to cranial direction
S4 and S5, S3 and S4= 12 years; S2 and S3= puberty
There are 5 sacral vertebrae. Remember to consider sacralization of L5
Older adults
Auricular surface of ilium: three considerations:
1. Morphological appearance of the auricular surface
Bone billowing, tiny striae, loss of transverse organization
Fine grained surface, coarse grained sandpaper, dense appearance
No porosity, microporosity, microporosity and macroporosity (greater than 1mm)
2. Bony changes at the apex
Sloping angle with a smooth margin; margins become irregular with bony buildup and lipping (margin may look sharp); much older individuals, variation is considerable
3. Bony activity in the retroauricular area
Generally smooth; coarse texture and irregular and uneven surface; osteophytic growth at high and/or low relief (erosion and bony growth can occur at the same time)
18-25: transverse billowing and very fine granularity
25-30: reduction of billowing but retention of youthful appearance
30-40: general loss of billowing, replacement by striae
40-50: uniform, coarse granularity
50-60: dense irregular surface of rugged topography
60+: marginal lipping, macroporosity, irregularity
Pubic symphysis
Morphology or the public symphyseal face
Texture change in pubic symphyseal face
Pubic symphysis rim
Pubic symphyseal face
Morphology and texture: deep ridge and furrow system with transverse orientation; begin to fill in and become worn down (flat and smooth) with fine granularity; coarse granularity; pitting and depression of face (sometimes porosity)
Pubic rim formation and deterioration
Rim is absent until the pubic symphyseal face becomes flattened; dorsal margin delineates first; then the ventral margin (maybe); nodule develops on superior portion of face; nodule contributes to superior ventral margin; superior ventral margin meets inferior ventral margin creating the pubic rim; rim deteriorates over time
Sternal end of the 4th rib
Rim
Rim is smooth, uniform, and rounded; edges show scalloping; in early adulthood, the scalloping becomes smooth and takes on an arc shape; rim becomes irregular; can become U-shaped with bony projections; ossification of costochondral cartilage
Pit
In the very young, the rib pit is billowed; shallow pit; pit deepens; pit becomes very deep with microporosity
Additional ageing techniques
Adults: ectocranial and endocranial suture closure (flat bones)
Rarely used anymore
Maybe if there is just a skull and no teeth
But, need to remember pathology
Dental attrition
Rarely used anymore
Why?
Maybe for extremely broad categories BUT context is important
Osteons and age- promising
Osteon count, osteon diameter, osteon perimeter, and osteon area have been shown to correlate with age
Exam format
Worth 200 points
On paper, no scantrons (YAY!)
30 multiple choice questions
10 matching
Case study questions (60 points)
For these types of questions, a scenario is described. This scenario is followed by questions regarding forensic analysis of skeletal remains associated with that forensic scenario.
Some of these questions will be in Multiple Choice format; other questions may be answer with a word, number, phrase, or sentence. Lengthy explanations are not required
Note: Identification of individual bones is not required for this exam. However, you should know bones and their landmarks that are relevant to the lecture discussions and lab exercises. For example, you need to know that the sciatic notch and the ischiopubic ramus because these are essential for sex estimation. You need to know the auricular surface of the ilium and the pubic symphysis because these are essential for aging adults. You will not need to visually identify or code them. However, you should know what a score of 5 means for the sciatic notch. You should know what an eroded pubic symphyseal face, with excess bone growth on the margins, and macroporosities tells us about the age of the individual.
Example questions
________ are a type of regular connective tissue that connect muscle to bone
Epiphyses
Aponeuroses
Ligaments
Tendons✅
In long bones, the primary center of ossification is also known as the _______
Metaphysis
Periosteum
Diaphysis✅
Epipysis
Which of the following does not describe macromorphoscopic traits?
The assessment of the slope of the forehead
The assessment of the pinched appearance of the ischiopubic ramus
Measurement of maximum length of the nasal bridge✅
The presence or absence of a large mastoid process
Which of the following statements regarding endochrondral ossification is TRUE?
During endochrondral ossification, cartilage turns into bone when an artery penetrates the cartilaginous model
NOT TRUE, cartilage does not magically turn into bone
Osteoblasts build bone inside of a cartilaginous model✅
Endochondral ossification is the primary form of ossification found in the flat bones of the cranium
Chondroclasts build a cartilaginous model in the rough shape of the diaphysis
NOT TRUE: ANY “CLASTS” DONT BUILD ANYTHING, “BLASTS” BUILD THINGS
Generally speaking, the most reliable indicator of age in children is associated with the ____________
Union of ossification centers
Fusion of the epiphyses to the diaphysis
Dental formation and eruption✅
Fusion of the vertebrae
Forensic Scenarios
Due to your status as an expert forensic anthropologist, you are called to the scene of a fatal house fire. Most of the human remains are fragmentary, burned, and commingled. One of the first steps that you take in your identification of individuals from this fire is to determine the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI). In your initial assessment of MNI, you examine the intact remains: there are 3 femora, 6 tibiae, 4 fibulae, 2 right humeri, 4 left humeri, 4 radii, and 6 ulnae. Based on the information provided, the MNI = _____________.
4, because there are four left humeri✅
One of the investigators on your team is working on the biological profile for another adult. Unlike the other skeletal remains, this person’s skeleton is largely intact. The skeleton is missing the right humerus, radius, ulna, and hand along with two vertebrae (T2 and L3). Which of the following stature estimation techniques would be the most reliable in this case?
Full skeleton method✅
YOU HAVE ALL THE BONES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO HEIGHT, WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE 2 MISSING VERTEBRAE- THEY CAN BE CALCULATED
A regression equation using maximum length of the femur
A regression equation using width of the pelvis
A regression equation all long bones of the left upper limb and left lower limb
You now begin your assessment of one of the adult skeletons. Unfortunately, due to fragmentation, there are no teeth present. So, you rely on the skeleton to provide an age estimate. The pubic symphyseal face has uniform horizontal bands of billowing bone. The margins of the face are rounded. There are no indications of osteoarthritis. No micro- or macroporosity is present. Which of the following ranges is the most likely age for this for this individual?
0-5 years old
80-95 years old
20-25 years old
50-55 years old