Animals and the Environment - Te ao Māori, Kaitiakitanga, and Taonga
Key Concepts and Definitions of Te Ao Māori
Te ao Māori: Represents the Māori world.
Mātauranga Māori (Māori Knowledge):
A direct translation is simply "Māori knowledge."
A more nuanced definition defines it as the combined knowledge of Polynesian ancestors and the experiences of Māori living in the environment of Aotearoa New Zealand.
It has been shaped by many generations of interaction with the local environment.
It is increasingly recognized as a critical part of understanding and managing New Zealand’s environment and wildlife.
Comparative Philosophies of Knowledge Systems:
European Philosophy: At the time of first contact, this system generally placed humanity at the top of a hierarchy, situated above "nature."
Māori Philosophy: Places humanity within "nature," emphasizing explicit recognition of connections and responsibilities.
Whanaungatanga (Whakapapa):
Refers to kinship and genealogical connections.
Kaitiakitanga (Guardianship):
Defined in Ko Aotearoa Tēnei, Te Taumata Tuatai (Waitangi Tribunal Report 2011) as "the obligation, arising from the kin relationship, to nurture or care for a person or thing."
It is a concept that arose out of adaptation to the environment of Aotearoa and the changes that occurred to it over time.
Taonga (Treasure):
Where kaitiaki obligations exist, they do so in relation to taonga (anything that is treasured).
Tangible Taonga: Includes land, waters, plants, wildlife, and cultural works.
Intangible Taonga: Includes language, identity, and culture, as well as mātauranga Māori itself.
Origins and Foundations of Mātauranga Māori
Polynesian Origins:
Māori ancestors belonged to a voyaging and trading culture in East Polynesia.
They likely originated from multiple locations, though archaeological evidence is insufficient to pinpoint specific origins.
Migration was likely enabled by climatic shifts that permitted more southerly voyaging.
Pacific Foundations of Knowledge:
Foundations of whanaungatanga and whakapapa were established in the Pacific.
Ancestors possessed considerable navigational expertise.
They came from a culture familiar with resource management and a knowledge system rooted in the observation of the natural environment.
They brought a suite of taonga species with them.
Commensal Species Introduced by Polynesian Ancestors
Ancestral Suites:
Polynesian voyagers carried a variety of commensal plants and animals; different combinations reached different islands.
Established Species in New Zealand:
Animals:
Kiore: The Pacific rat (Rattus exulans). It is considered an introduced pest but also a taonga species.
Kurī: The Pacific dog. It was an introduced taonga species that is now extinct.
Plants:
Taro.
Uwhi: Yam.
Aute: Paper mulberry.
Tī pore: Pacific cabbage tree.
Kūmara: Sweet potato (originally from South America via East Polynesia).
Hue: Bottle gourd (originally from South America via East Polynesia).
Species Lost or Not Established:
Other species carried by ancestors but not established in New Zealand included pigs, chickens, coconut, breadfruit, and banana.
Historical Periods of Māori Occupation
Archaic Period (–):
Characterized by less modification of the landscape, mostly occurring in the South Island.
Lifestyles were primarily hunter-gatherer across large areas.
Small socio-political groupings lived in seasonal houses within undefended settlements.
Practice included big-game hunting and limited gardening.
Little evidence of warfare or slavery; limited mass migration.
Classic Period (–):
Characterized by significant landscape modification, largely in the North Island.
Populations lived in permanent houses within large socio-political groupings.
Development of fortified Pā; warfare and slavery became common.
Practice shifted to small-game hunting and large gardens.
Mass migrations occurred.
Transition Markers:
The shift between the Archaic and Classic periods was marked by the loss of terrestrial mega-fauna (e.g., moa), significant shifts in climatic conditions, and a series of large earthquakes.
Environmental Impacts and Biota Modification
Habitat Modification:
Lowland forests were burned to support human populations (habitat modification).
Species Impacts:
Extinction of vulnerable native species occurred.
Integration of new species from Polynesia (kiore, kurī, and various crops).
Human-Mediated Distribution Changes:
Passive Distribution Shifts: Includes recolonization after local extinctions.
Active Translocations: Māori purposefully moved native species around the country.
Specific Examples of Native Translocation:
Plants: Several plant species have distributions correlating with archaeological sites rather than predicted natural ranges. Examples include Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), Hebe (Hebe speciosa), and Rengarenga (Arthropodium cirratum).
Animals: The translocation of flax snails (Placostylus) and Toheroa (Paphies ventricosa) are noted in the archaeological and genetic record.
Detailed Status of Introduced Species
Kiore (Pacific Rat):
Scientific name: Rattus exulans.
Evidence of their presence includes gnawed snail shells and bone deposits.
Kurī (Pacific Dog):
Widespread in New Zealand prior to European colonization.
Uses: Food, clothing (skins/hair), jewelry (teeth), tools (bones), hunting, and ritual/ceremonial purposes.
Extinction: Gone by the , likely due to interbreeding with European dogs.
Evolution of Mātauranga and Management Practices
Rapid Development:
Mātauranga developed rapidly post-Archaic period, with increasingly strong ties to the whenua (land) and taiao (environment) as resource availability changed.
Resource Management:
Knowledge and practices evolved to conserve native species to support whānau and hapū.
Example: Te tāhere manu (bird catching) and catching piharau (lamprey eels). Eels became a vital protein source following the extinction of the moa.
Kaitiakitanga Tools:
Rāhui: A temporary ban or closed season placed on an area or resource. This tool has been used for generations to manage resources effectively.
Note: While the term "kaitiakitanga" in its modern context of environmental guardianship is relatively new (dating to the ), the practices for exercising it are ancient.
Impacts of European Contact
Environmental Degradation: Native environment degradation increased significantly.
Economic and Political Shift: Rapidly changing settings led to the influx of new species.
New Taonga Species:
Pigs: Known as kunekune.
Chickens: Known as heihei.
Horses: Known as hōiho.
Potatoes: Known as taewa.
Modern Kaitiakitanga and Contemporary Challenges
Knowledge Loss and Resurgence:
There was a significant loss of traditional knowledge during the late and early .
A modern resurgence is bringing Mātauranga Māori into the cultural mainstream, with communities reconnecting to traditional knowledge.
Wai 262 and the Waitangi Tribunal (2011):
Claimant Position: Māori argue they are kaitiaki of indigenous species (taonga) and that this relationship, plus the associated mātauranga, should be recognized in law. They seek veto power over commercial and scientific exploitation of taonga species.
Crown Position: Accepts cultural association but rejects Māori ownership of genetic or biological materials. Rejects the idea of a Māori veto over research or commerce.
Benefit Sharing: A key debate is who should benefit from the commercial or scientific use of taonga species. Recognition of kaitiaki would ensure benefits are shared to help the species through enhanced guardianship.
Kaitiakitanga vs. Western Perspectives:
Western Conservation: Emphasizes ecological goals, restoration of diversity, "ecological integrity," and the "intrinsic value" of nature.
Fisheries Management: Emphasizes economic goals and maintaining abundance for commercial harvest.
Kaitiakitanga: A holistic perspective that links environmental management to ancestors, history, identity, spirituality, and cultural responsibility. Loss of biodiversity is seen as having cultural consequences: severance of links to food species, erosion of kinship, and impaired tribal development.
Modern Aspirations:
There is a call to reform conservation law to more holistically support hapū and iwi leadership.
Examples of progress include the Te Urewera Act 2014 and the Department of Conservation’s Conservation Management Strategy Northland 2014–2024.
Various National Science Challenges (e.g., Sustainable Seas, Deep South, Our Land and Water) aim to build Māori-led research platforms through "Vision Mātauranga."
Self-Test Questions
In Mātauranga Māori, from where does the obligation for kaitiakitanga come?
What Māori term is given to things for which an obligation for kaitiakitanga exist?
Describe a mechanism by which kaitiakitanga can be exercised.
What are the primary impacts that Māori had on the New Zealand environment?
What key difference sets conservation practice apart from kaitiakitanga?
List the animals and plants brought to Aotearoa New Zealand by the ancestors of Māori, how did these impact the environment?