mcq

Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information.

Autistic thinking – A type of self-centered thought process often detached from reality, where a person focuses on personal fantasies, dreams, or private logic rather than external reality.
Directed thinking – Logical, goal-oriented thinking used for problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making.
Reasoning – The process of drawing conclusions based on information and logical thought.
Deductive reasoning – A logical process where conclusions follow from general principles (e.g., "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.").
Inductive reasoning – The process of drawing general conclusions from specific observations (e.g., "Every swan I’ve seen is white, so all swans must be white.").
Metacognition – Thinking about thinking; the ability to analyze and control one's cognitive processes.

Concept – A mental grouping of similar objects, ideas, or people. There are three main types:
1. Superordinate concepts – Broad categories (e.g., "animal").
2. Basic-level concepts – More specific categories (e.g., "dog").
3. Subordinate concepts – Even more detailed (e.g., "Golden Retriever").
Typicality – The degree to which an object or idea fits the prototype of a category.
Prototype – The best example of a concept (e.g., a robin as a prototype of a bird).
Images – Mental representations of objects or events.

Algorithms – A step-by-step, logical procedure that guarantees a solution (e.g., a math formula).
Heuristic – A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to make quick decisions.
- Representative heuristic – Judging a situation based on how similar it is to a prototype (e.g., assuming someone who loves books is a librarian).
- Availability heuristic – Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes more than car accidents because of media coverage).
Insight – A sudden realization of a problem’s solution, often occurring unexpectedly.
Convergent thinking – Narrowing down multiple options to find the best single solution.
Divergent thinking – Generating multiple, creative solutions to a problem.

Confirmation bias – The tendency to seek out information that supports our beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
Implicit assumptions – Unconscious beliefs or assumptions that influence thinking.
Fixation – The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
- Mental set (also called rigidity) – The tendency to approach problems in a habitual way, even if it's not effective.
- Functional fixedness – The inability to see new uses for an object beyond its usual function (e.g., seeing a screwdriver only as a tool for screws, not as a potential weight for a pendulum).

Overconfidence – The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments.
- Pros: Can improve motivation, persistence, and decision-making.
- Cons: Can lead to errors, risk-taking, and poor decisions.
Framing – The way information is presented influences decision-making (e.g., "90% survival rate" sounds better than "10% death rate").
Belief bias – The tendency to accept conclusions that align with our beliefs while rejecting logical ones that contradict them.
Belief perseverance – Holding on to beliefs even after they have been proven wrong.

Artificial intelligence (AI) – The creation of machines that can perform tasks requiring human-like intelligence, such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Computer neural networks – AI systems modeled after the human brain that learn from experience and recognize patterns.

Language is a system of symbols and rules used for communication.

The five key factors of language:
1. Phonemes – The smallest units of sound in a language (e.g., "b" in "bat").
2. Morphemes – The smallest units of meaning (e.g., "un-" in "undo").
3. Grammar – The system of rules that enables communication.
  - Semantics – The meaning of words and sentences.
  - Syntax – The arrangement of words into grammatically correct sentences.
  - Prosody – The rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech.
The four criteria for a true language:
1. Symbolism – Words and symbols represent objects, actions, and ideas.
2. Syntax – Rules for combining words into meaningful sentences.
3. Generativity – The ability to create an infinite number of sentences.
4. Displacement – The ability to communicate about things not immediately present.

The process by which humans learn language.

Cooing/Babbling (0-6 months) – Infants produce sounds that are not yet words.
One-word stage (12-18 months) – Children use single words to represent entire thoughts.
- Holophrase – A single word representing a complete idea (e.g., "milk" meaning "I want milk").
- Overextension – Using one word for too many things (e.g., calling all animals "dog").
Two-word stage (18-24 months) – Children start combining words into simple phrases.
- Overgeneralization – Applying grammar rules too broadly (e.g., "goed" instead of "went").
Beyond two-word stage (2+ years) – Rapid vocabulary growth and mastery of complex sentences.

Behaviorist view (B.F. Skinner) – Language is learned through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning.
Cognitive view (Noam Chomsky) – Humans are biologically wired to learn language through an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that enables learning grammar naturally.

Benjamin Whorf’s linguistic determinism hypothesis – Language shapes the way we think (e.g., people who speak different languages perceive the world differently).
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf – Expanded on linguistic determinism, arguing that language influences but does not entirely determine thought.